Synthesized sound
Synthesized sounds are applied as stimuli in 15 studies. To a certain extent, synthesized sounds
share characteristics with acoustic sound. The study by Tervaniemi and Huotilainen (no. 2) indicates
that the neural responses to synthesized musical sounds differ from the responses to sinus tones.
This finding suggests the relevance of using synthesized stimuli. Nevertheless, the properties of syn-
thesized sounds do not equal the expressive qualities of acoustic sounds. The differences between
acoustic and synthesized stimuli deserve further investigation.
Real music
Real music is applied in eight studies (no. 8, 9, 18, 41, 46, 48, 57, 58). Two papers report studies of
high ecological validity. The fMRI study by Demorest & Morisson (no. 8) is based on real music from
European and Indian cultures, and the studies of musical expression reported by De Poli (no. 9) are
based on live recordings of musicians.
Khalfa et al. (no. 41) have applied recordings of relaxing music in their study of bodily reactions
after stress. In studies by Dalla Bella & Peretz (no. 18) and Drake & El Heni (no. 48), the participants
tapped in synchrony with real music. Three studies report children’s reactions to recorded music,
Trehub (no. 46), Lamont (no. 57), and Platinga & Trainor (no. 58).
One of these eight studies (no. 8) is a brain imaging study. This paper and the PET study of intensely
pleasurable responses to music reported in Zatorre’s introduction (Blood & Zatorre 2001) prove that
it is possible to apply real music as the stimulus in brain imaging experiments.
Cultural references
Appendix 3.07 reports a survey of cultural references NM I.
Western major-minor tonality
The survey indicates that out of 61 papers, 29 focus on Western major-minor tonality, and 23 papers
report no cultural affiliation. Seven papers refer to Western popular or traditional music, and seven
papers report comparisons of different cultures. This distribution of cultural references indicates a
preponderance of Western music in the studies. It remains an open question whether the results ob-
tained in studies of Western tonal music are valid for other types of music.
Cross-cultural studies
Out of the seven papers that compare different cultures, four have applied real music; Alessandro
Scarlatti and Liu Qi Niang in the study of cultural familiarity (no. 8), expressive intentions in European
and Afro-American music (no. 9), responses to TV tunes by Western and Japanese children (no. 46),
and tapping in synchrony to French and Tunisian songs (no. 48).
In addition, Neuhaus (no. 23) has investigated the cortical responses of German, Indian, and
Turkish musicians to Europeans and Thai scales and a Turkish makam. Sittiprapaporn (no. 26) has
studied the Mismatch Negative responses of native Thai speakers to native and non-native words.
Ruzza et al. (no. 60) have examined early vocalizations in Italian and Moroccan infants.
These studies introduce important cultural perspectives in the field of neurosciences and music.
Inclusion of aesthetic and social factors
The first theme of the NM I conference focuses on the cerebral organization of musical functions
and the perceptual components of music (papers no. 1-29) This focus is by definition narrow, but
necessary for contributing to a basis for reliable research. The second theme, brain sciences versus
music, opens important discussions between neuroscientists and creative artists (papers no. 30-44).
The third theme, music and development, establishes relevant relationships with developmental psy-
chology (papers no. 45-61).