A distributed neural system
Tramo et al. (NM II no. 15, pp. 148-174) have reviewed literature on studies of pitch perception and
the auditory cortex. They present detailed observations in the fields of neurophysiology, neuroanat-
omy, and the cortical mechanisms of pitch processing. They describe three areas of the auditory
cortex, a core area, a belt area, and a parabelt area. The core area contains frequency-selective
neurons, and its input consists almost entirely of frequency-specific auditory information. The core
area is surrounded by a belt area and a parabelt area, which integrate auditory input with other types
of sensory input. The belt and parabelt are characterized as auditory association areas, which are
reciprocally connected with the frontal, parietal, and temporal cortices, the basal ganglia, and the
cerebellum, to form a widely distributed neural system for music cognition (p. 153).
Performance of rhythm and melody
Ullén et al. (NM II no. 38, pp. 368-376) have investigated whether the temporal structure of move-
ment sequences can be represented and learned independently of their ordinal structure. From a
number of studies of non-musicians, using fMRI during finger tapping tasks, the authors conlude that
the processing of temporal sequences in voluntarily timed motor tasks is largely independent from
the processing of ordinal information (p. 386, 374). This finding suggests that performance of rhythm
and melody in piano playing is based on two different neural networks. A further study, investigating
piano playing from musical scores, suggests a similar dissociation beween brain regions involved in
rhythmic and melodic processing (Bengtsson & Ullén 2006).
Culture, development, and training
Brains of musicians and non-musicians
In their study of gray matter brain volume and musical instrument preference, Schneider et al. (NM
II no. 40, pp. 387-394) initially tested more than 400 musicians and 50 non-musicians. Listening to
a complex sound, some listeners recognized predominantly the fundamental pitch, others predomi-
nantly perceived single harmonics of the complex sound (p. 388). This test was the basis for study-
ing a subgroup of 87 listeners.
MRI and MEG studies showed differences in gray matter volume of the pitch-sensitive area of
the auditory cortex, the lateral Heschl’s gyrus (HG). Fundamental pitch listeners exhibited a larger
volume in their left lateral HG. Their preferred instruments were percussive or high-pitched instru-
ments, e.g. drums, guitar, piano, trumpet, or flute. Spectral pitch listeners exhibited a larger volume
in their right lateral HG. This group included lower-pitched melodic instruments, e.g. bassoon, sax-
ophone, french horn, cello, organ, and singers (p. 387). This study contributes to a nuanced view of
hemispheric specialization.
Child care and the origin of music
Fitch (NM II no. 3, pp. 29-49) has reviewed theories about the evolutionary origin of music, finding
support for Darwin’s hypothesis of a music-like protolanguage, and the childcare hypothesis, which
proposes that the songs in mother-infant communication have a decisive adaptive function. He also
points out that the percussive behavior of great apes represents an overlooked homologue to human
instrumental music.^9
Deficits, disorders, therapy, and recovery
Sensitivity to musical expression
Sloboda, Wise, and Peretz (NM II, no. 25, pp. 255-261) have studied the responses to musical ex-
9 In an fMRI study of macaque monkeys, Remedios et al. (2009:18010-18015) found that brain regions activated by
drumming sounds and by vocalizations overlap in the auditory cortex and the amygdala.