Emulsifi cation 153the addition of MTG at the levels studied
(0% – 0.6%).
It was also suggested to use seaweeds,
which contain a high concentration of mineral
elements, to reduce the amount of added
NaCl in meat processing (Cofrades et al.
2008 ).Nonmeat Components
Nonmeat components play an important role
in “ emulsifi ed ” meat products, since they
infl uence nutritional, sensory, and functional
properties. They were used from very ancient
times in comminuted products: the Egyptians
used colors and fl avorings; and the Romans
used saltpeter (potassium nitrate), spices, and
colors for preservation and to improve the
appearance of foods. More recently, in addi-
tion to meat proteins, a variety of nonmeat
ingredients have been used as fi llers, binders,
and extenders to reduce cook shrink and for-
mulation costs. The use of nonmeat compo-
nents is changing due to several reasons: new
components or new forms of them (i.e., nano -
ingredients having specifi c properties) are
available; and knowledge about their role has
increased, while nutritional concerns have
become increasingly important, leading man-
ufacturers to develop new formulations or to
modify traditional products to make them
healthier.
The use of some nonmeat components can
be submitted to food regulation (e.g., addi-
tives defi ned in the Council Directive 89/107/
EEC 1989 ). Most food additives are consid-
ered safe. However, some are known to be
carcinogenic or toxic. Allergic reactions to
colorings and hyperactivity from phosphates
have been reported for sensitive individuals.
Moreover, some nonmeat ingredients, such
as vegetables, egg, or milk proteins, contain
substances that cause allergic reactions in
some consumers (e.g., gluten enteropathy
or lactose intolerance) (Jimenez - Colmenero
2000 ).Indeed, to maintain the same NaCl ionic
strength, the NaCl content must increase
when the fat content is decreased (Ruusunen
and Puolanne 2005 ).
A variety of approaches to reduce sodium
content of meat products has been reported:
(1) lowering the level of sodium chloride
(NaCl) added; (2) replacing all or part of the
NaCl with other chloride salts (KCl, CaCl 2 ,
and MgCl 2 ); (3) replacing part of the NaCl
with nonchloride salts, such as phosphates or
with new processing techniques or process
modifi cations; and (4) combinations of any
of the above approaches (Ruusunen and
Puolanne 2005 ).
The sodium chloride content of meat can
be reduced when using prerigor meat without
detrimentally affecting the physical, chemi-
cal, or sensory properties of frankfurter - type
sausages (Puolanne and Terrell 1983 ). At
lowered salt additions, it appears important
to keep the pH of raw materials high enough
to ensure a high level of water holding and
fi rmness in cooked sausages, irrespective of
how the high pH has been obtained (Puolanne
et al. 2001 ). This would then mean, for
example, that high - pH phosphates could be
utilized to raise the batter pH. A sausage of
normal gel - forming capacity can be made
with about 0.3% – 0.5% units lower sodium
chloride content when phosphates are used,
compared with a sausage made without
added phosphates (Ruusunen and Puolanne
2005 ).
Another way to reduce the required
amount of salt and phosphate is to use micro-
bial transglutaminase (MTG). It is a calcium -
independent enzyme that catalyzes the
polymerization and crosslinking of proteins
through the formation of covalent bonds
between protein molecules (Carballo et al.
2006 ; Heinz 2007 ). Although the addition
of MTG had benefi cial effects on reducing
cook loss and increasing hardness and chewi-
ness, Pietrasik and Li - Chan (2002) found
that the detrimental effects of salt reduction
on these properties were not overcome by