318 Chapter 17
level of ascorbates ranges from 200 to
400 mg/kg. In most countries, the use of
phosphates is allowed and the levels used
vary from 0.15% to 0.3%, given as P 2 O 5 (in
the EU, the maximum is 0.5%). Lactate and
acetate are used for microbial safety (Bedie
et al. 2001 ), and citrate can replace phos-
phate. Sodium glutamate is also frequently
used as a taste enhancer. Glucono - delta -
lactone is used as a color enhancer.
For economical reasons, nonmeat ingredi-
ents are also added to sausages. There is also
a wide range of other ingredients that are
added to increase water and fat holding;
some of them are gelling agents, while others
are thickeners. Milk powder, caseinate, and
soy protein hold water as well as have emul-
sifying properties. Potato fl our, carrageenan,
and other polymers are added to hold water.
Various plant materials are added for fl avor
or as extenders, such as mushrooms, beans,
onions, cheese, vegetables, and spices. They
do not have a technological function but may
require some extra measures to be incorpo-
rated into the sausage batter production.Formulation
Sausage preparation starts in the carcass
cutting line or when meat assortments are
purchased from the market. Formulations of
sausages were originally designed for optimal
use of all the carcass meat and edible byprod-
ucts. In practical terms, the prices/values of
different assortments were determined by the
technological and sensory properties, that is,
how the sausage quality resulted from their
relative proportions in the formulation.
Therefore, as the customer pays for quality,
the assortment prices are calculated on the
basis of the prices of the sausages sold, and
not vice versa. Later, in the long run, when
the formulations have become stable, the
relative assortment of prices also hardens in
the market. Therefore, it is also possible to
use stable formulation and stable prices,
although most modern factories utilizepH, and phosphates play a central role in this
(Ruusunen and Puolanne 2005 ). When
cooked, these ingredients coagulate (dis-
solved proteins) or aggregate (proteins in the
remaining myofi brils) to form a gel (Tornberg
2005 ). In contrast, connective tissue mem-
brane proteins partly dissolve at around
65 ° C, partly swell during cooking, and the
solubilized collagen forms a gel only when
cooled. The same occurs with connective
tissue that can be added as homogenized
rind or dried powder. It should be noted,
however, that collagen, once dissolved,
slowly forms a gel at lower temperatures
(20 – 30 ° C), but the gel melts at 45 – 59 ° C
(hysteresis) (Puolanne and Ruusunen 1981 ).
This behavior is somewhat similar for fat, but
other proteins do not behave like this.
Sausages may also contain edible byprod-
ucts, like liver, tongue, blood or blood
plasma, meat that is not included in the
carcass (e.g., masseter, diaphragm ), and
organ fat. Other organs are also used, but the
use of all meats and edible byproducts is tied
to cultural aspects as well as to possible uses
for the edible byproducts elsewhere (e.g., as
animal feed).
Cooked sausages contain salt (NaCl),
which is not an additive, according to EU
regulations, but an ingredient, which can be,
due to health reasons, partly replaced by
other salts (for instance, potassium chloride)
(Desmond 2005 ; Puolanne and Ruusunen
2005 ). The salt content is usually between
1.5% and 2.5%, but lower and higher con-
tents are frequently seen. Salt contributes to
water/fat binding, gel formation, taste, and
keepability. Nitrite is also added to most
cooked sausages at levels of 120 – 150 mg/kg,
but there is a constant trend to reduce these
levels. There are also, however, sausages
made without nitrite, like German Bratwurst.
It is recommended that when nitrite is used,
ascorbates should be added to reduce the risk
of nitrosamine formation. Nitrite also has
antioxidative capacity and improves color
stability (Pegg and Shahidi 2000 ). The usual