Handbook of Meat Processing

Restructured Whole-Tissue Meats 415

gluten, soy protein isolates, carrageenan, and

tenderizing enzymes in meat restructuring

has been reported to affect the fi nished

product fl avor (Miller et al. 1988 ; Chen and

Trout 1991 ; Demos et al. 1994 ). Fraser et al.

(1993) used a variety of hot - set binders in

restructuring lamb roast and found that unde-

sirable fl avors increased with increased

storage time. Esguerra (1994) reported the

presence of slight liver - like foreign fl avors in

beefsteaks restructured using Fibrimex TM.

Similarly, Flores et al. (2007) reported that

the fl avor of pork restructured with Activa TM

and Fibrimex TM were described by some con-

sumers as having a “ bad after - taste ” or “ liver -

taste off - fl avor, ” and one consumer in

particular described the fl avor as having an

“ iron fl avor ” or “ strong pig fl avor. ” The pres-

ence of high numbers of spoilage microor-

ganisms will lead to the development of

off - odors in chilled restructured meat prod-

ucts before any fl avor changes are detected

by the consumer (Kotula et al. 1987 ).

Improving Product Quality

There are a number of ways to improve the

quality of restructured meat products. The

use of any process or additive must be bal-

anced with the need to maintain the overall

quality of the fi nal product and not just a few

attributes at the expense of the others. Factors

such as cost, potential risk to health, environ-

mental effect, and even carbon and energy

footprint should be considered while decid-

ing on ways to improve product quality.

Visual Appeal

For whole - tissue restructured steaks to have

the appearance that closely resembles that of

a real steak, the muscle fi bers/fi ber bundles

in the restructured steaks should be aligned

(Guenther 1989 ), and the color and other

visual attributes of the meat should be as

uniform as possible. To achieve this, the

meat fi bers/fi ber bundles should be aligned

et al. 1987 ; Lewis and Purslow 1990 ; Savage
et al. 1990 ) demonstrated in a series of model
studies that the texture of cooked restructured
meat was affected by: the muscle fi ber align-
ment with respect to the adhesive junction;
the degree of adhesion between meat pieces;
and the size of the meat pieces in the restruc-
tured meat. Farouk et al. (2005c) cold - set
restructured beefsteaks with the meat fi bers
aligned parallel, perpendicular, or an equal
mixture of parallel and perpendicular (mixed)
in relation to the cut steak surface. The
authors subjected the steaks to sensory evalu-
ation and found that consumers preferred the
texture and tenderness of the steaks with
fi bers running perpendicular or an equal
mixture of parallel and perpendicular to the
face of the steaks compared with those with
fi bers running parallel only. The steaks with
fi bers running parallel also ranked signifi -
cantly lower than the others (perpendicular
or mixed) in overall eating quality.

Flavor and Odor

One of the major causes of deterioration in
the fl avor of restructured meats is lipid oxida-
tion. There are a number of terms, such as
“ stale, ” “ rancid, ” “ musty, ” and “ barnyard, ”
used to characterize oxidized fl avor and odor.
The oxidized or rancid fl avor that develops
rapidly during refrigerated or frozen storage
of precooked or partially cooked meat prod-
ucts or meats in which the membranes are
broken down such as in restructuring is
termed warmed - over fl avor (Pearson and
Gray 1983 ). Love (1988) reported that
warmed - over fl avor can develop in fresh
meats. According to Gray and Pearson
(1987) , lipid oxidation and warmed - over
fl avor development in restructured meats is
infl uenced by the raw materials used in
restructuring, reduction in particle size, and
cooking and/or heating of the product.
Undesirable fl avors and odors can also arise
due the ingredients and additives used in
restructuring. The use of whey protein, wheat