Forensic anthropology 151
of entry of a projectile, (3) the order of entry defects if in the same
surface, and (4) an approximation of caliber, or at least the elimina-
tion of certain calibers. Because the soft tissue has disappeared, and
because garments may not be available for inspection, determin-
ing range of fire is often not possible. Except when a projectile has
struck an intermediate target, the entry defect should provide, at least
in one dimension, the approximate diameter (caliber) of the round.
Variations in the shape of an entry from circular to elliptical report
the approximate angle of entry. The exit is generally distinguished
by the presence of an outward bevel. Usually, the exit defect will be
irregular and somewhat larger than the entry because of deformation
of the round during its transit through the target. Both entry and exit
bevels will have edges that slope approximately 45° from the incident
angle. This feature owes to the manner in which fracture lines propa-
gate through the hydroxyapatite crystal. Notable exceptions to this
rule include the keyhole defect produced by a low-angle strike tangent
to the skull. In this case, a furrow resembling a keyhole is produced.
Although the round may not enter the skull, a bevel is produced on
both the outer and inner surfaces.^56 Double beveling may also be
observed when the projectile strikes an intermediate target such as
a glass pane, screen door, etc., causing the round to lose stability,
thus imparting its energy into the target in an unpredictable manner.
Detailed descriptions of the interaction of projectiles and bone may
be found in several sources^65 (DiMaio 2003, 175–83). If garments
accompany the remains, they should be examined for defects over-
laying any ballistic injuries for possible indications of range of fire,
such as soot or scorching. Ballistic metal usually transfers some of its
substance to the bone through which it passes. Rounds entering the
body and skull are often fragmented as they strike bone tissue. For
this reason, remains believed to contain ballistic materials should be
radiographed before an examination begins. This is especially impor-
tant when GSW defects are present in the skull. Some small-caliber
rounds often fail to exit the skull. When this is the case, following
x-ray, the skull should be opened and examined to determine the path
of the round and to retrieve it for ballistic examination.
Blade injury: When death appears to be the result of sharp force injury,
a close examination of all bone surfaces is imperative. Imagine the
torso from chin to the pubic bones (the vital area), then picture
the subtending bones (vertebrae, sternum, ribs, clavicles, scapulae)
painted upon this surface. When the torso is morphed into a round
target, and the underlying bones into a bull’s-eye, the latter com-
prises about 65 to 75% of the target. The forensic implication is clear.
In theory, in a fatal blade injury one would expect bone to be marked