CHAPTER 21 • GAIT ANALYSIS 127including foot contact timing). Temporal, but not spatial
parameters can be measured with footswitches (on/off
devices detecting foot contact timing).
•Temporal-spatial features of walking and running
differ substantially. During walking, at least one foot is
always on the ground while during the majority of run-
ning neither foot is in contact with the ground. While
walking has two double-support phases, running has
two phases of double floatduring the swing period.
The percentages of time in stance and swing are
reversed in walking and running: about 60% and 40%
respectively for walking and about 40% and 60%,
respectively for running (Fig. 21-2) (Novacheck, 1998;
Perry, 1992). During normal walking at an average
walking speed, each double-limb support time com-
prises approximately 10% of the gait cycle while
single-limb support comprises about 40%. Typical
values (Kerrigan and Edelstein, 2001) of temporal gait
parameters in healthy young adults, walking comfort-
ably on a level surface, are summarized in Table 21-1.FIG. 21-1 The gait cycle. (a) Walking figure. (b) Walking gait cycle: IC, initial contact; LR, load-
ing response; TO, toe off; MS, midstance; TS, terminal stance; PS, preswing; IS, initial swing; MS,
midswing; TS, terminal swing. (c) Running figure: 1. Stance phase absorption. 2. Stance phase gen-
eration. 3. Swing phase generation. 4. Swing phase reversal. 5. Swing phase absorption. (d) Running
gait cycle: IC, initial contact; TO, toe off; StR, stance phase reversal; SwR, swing phase reversal;
absorption, from SwR through IC to StR; generation, from StR through TO to SwR. (From
Novacheck, 1998).
FIG. 21-2 Variation in gait cycle param-
eters with speed of movement. For each
condition, the bar graph begins at initial
contact on the left and represents two com-
plete gait cycles or strides. Note that as
speed increases, time spent in swing (clear)
increases, stance time (shaded) decreases,
double float increases, and cycle time
shortens (From Novacheck, 1998).