CHAPTER 99 • SPECIAL OLYMPICS ATHLETES 581Nygaard IE: Does prolonged high-impact activity contribute to
later urinary incontinence? A retrospective cohort study of
female olympians. Obstet Gynecol 90(5)718–722, 1997.
Nygaard IE, DeLancey JO, Arnsdorf L et al: Exercise and
Incontinence. Obstet Gynecol75(5):848–851, 1990.
Nygaard IE, Glowacki C, Saltzman CL: Relationship between
foot flexibility and urinary incontinence in nulliparous varsity
athletes. Obstet Gynecol87(6):1049–1051, 1996.
Resnick NM: Urinary incontinence, in Cassel CK et al (ed.):
Geriatric Medicine: Chap. 48, 3rd ed. New York, NY,
Springer-Verlag, 1997.
Sanborn CG, Jankowski CM: Physiologic considerations for
women in sport. Clin Sports Med13(2):315–327, 1994.
Slater CA, Stone JA: Participation and historical perspective, in
Ireland ML, Nattiv A (eds.): The Female Athlete: Chap. 2.
New York, NY, Elsevier Science, 2002.
Strickland SM Metzl JD: Growth and development, in Ireland
ML, Nattiv A (eds.): The Female Athlete: Chap. 22. New York,
NY, Elsevier Science, 2002.
US Preventive Services Task Force, Recommendations and
Rationale: Screening for osteoporosis in postmenopausal
women. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2002.
Vuori I, Heinonen A: Sport and bone, in Drinkwater BL (ed.):
Women in Sport: Volume VIII of the Encyclopaedia of Sports
Medicine: Chap. 19. London, Blackwell Science, 2000.
Weaver CM et al: Impact of exercise on bone health and con-
traindication of oral contraceptive use in young women. Med
Sci Sports Exerc33(6):873–880, 2001.
99 SPECIAL OLYMPICS ATHLETES
Pamela M Williams, MD
Christopher M Prior, DOSPECIAL OLYMPICS INTERNATIONAL
- Background: Founded in 1968 by Eunice Kennedy
Shriver, Special Olympics is an international organi-
zation serving more than 1 million persons with
mental retardation in over 200 programs more than
150 countries. Eligible athletes are given the opportu-
nity to participate in training and competition that
challenges each athlete to their fullest potential,
regardless of the athlete’s level of ability. - Mission and goals: The Special Olympics’ mission is
to provide year round sports training and athletic
competition for people with mental retardation. The
programs provide opportunities for athletes to
develop physical fitness and to experience the cama-
raderie of sport and the spirit of sportsmanship. The
ultimate goal of the program is to use sport as a
medium to aid persons with mental retardation in par-
ticipating as productive and respected members of
society.
•Athlete’s oath: “Let me win. But if I cannot win, let
me be brave in the attempt.”- Eligibility: To be eligible to participate, an individual
must be at least eight years of age and:
•Have been identified by an agency or professional as
having mental retardation
•Have a cognitive delay as determined by standard-
ized measures
•Have significant learning or vocational problems
due to cognitive delays that require or have required
specially designed instruction- Age restrictions: Children who are at least 6 years
old may participate in age-appropriate training pro-
grams but may not compete. There is no maximum
age limitation for participation.
- Age restrictions: Children who are at least 6 years
OFFICIAL SPORTING EVENTS•Official sports: Special Olympics International (SOI)
currently recognizes 26 official sports. These are
divided into Summer and Winter games as listed in
Table 99-1.- Demonstration sports: Demonstration sports, offi-
cially termed recognized sports, may be incorporated
into events as determined by the hosting site in con-
junction with SOI and may become official sports
when adequate national programs include the event in
their national games. Recent examples include kayak-
ing, pitch and putt, and judo. - Prohibited sports: Prohibited sports are those that
have been identified as a result of their unreasonable
risk to the health and safety of Special Olympics ath-
letes. Currently prohibited sports include boxing,
fencing, shooting, karate, and other martial arts.
•Levels of participation: Special Olympics athletes are
divided by sex, age, and ability.
TABLE 99-1 Special Olympics Sports
SUMMER GAMES WINTER GAMES
Aquatics Gymnastics Alpine skiing
Athletics Powerlifting Cross country skiing
Badminton Roller skating Figure skating
Basketball Sailing Floor hockey
Bocce Softball Snowboarding
Bowling Table tennis Snowshoeing
Cycling Team handball Speedskating
Equestrian Tennis
Football (Soccer) Volleyball
Golf