example the tendency for simultaneous management of multiple projects as
opposed to focus on one project for a given period).
The second theme presents the differences that appear between countries
as indicated by respondents’ varying prioritization of the past, present and
future. Consequences regarding management are generally perceived as a
reference to the past in a society where there is a strong past-oriented tendency;
and vice versa. For example, in a past-oriented environment, the preceding
year’s sales might be a stronger criterion than expected market growth for
determining new sales objectives. This dimension presents similarities with
Hofstede’s Long-term versus Short-term Orientation. Short-term Orientation
resembles Trompenaars’ present orientation and Long-term Orientation
Trompenaars’ future oriented environment.
Inner versus Outer Directedness. This dimension reflects the belief either
that individuals can control and influence their environment or that they have
limited ability to do so. Consequences for management are reflected for exam-
ple in strategic choices that will either tend to plan and provoke changes or try
to take best advantage of the situation. In Trompenaars’ analysis (Smith,
Trompenaars and Dugan, 1995), Inner Directedness displays beliefs in plan-
ning (thinking), beliefs that personal efforts matter and that luck will influence
the outcome. Outer Directedness presents beliefs that personal relationships
(networks) as well as political conditions matter for success, beliefs that politi-
cal conditions do too, and finally that luck will be decisive. Consequences for
business life might be seen in employees’ strategies for success. In an inner-
directed environment, employees would concentrate on making plans and
working hard to achieve a goal, whereas in an outer-directed environment,
employees might make a greater use of their personal network and the possi-
bilities it contains for achieving their goals. Table 6.5 expands on beliefs asso-
ciated with Inner and Outer Directedness.
A different understanding of cultureTrompenaars’ research has developed through the years into one of the largest
databases (along with Hofstede’s) available for the study of cross-cultural man-
agement. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner collected responses from some of
the former USSR republics or Eastern European countries that Hofstede’s data-
base did not include.
Trompenaars’ study confirms it is possible to compare culture on the basis
of dimensions. It supplements Hofstede’s research by extending the number of
cultural answers to the fundamental problem ‘social interactions’ and adds a
dimension dealing with individuals’ attitudes to the environment (Inner
Versus Outer Directedness). In addition, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s
research further develops the concept of culture with a focus on meanings.
154 International Human Resource Management