Traditional philosophiesConfucianism
Confucius (Kongzi, 551–479 BC) developed a set of teachings based on absolute
respect for tradition (early Zhou Dynasty) and on a carefully ranked hierarchy
founded on primary relationships between members of families and between the
people and their rulers (De Mente, 1994). It has been seen as a philosophy guiding
people’s daily life. The major ideas of Confucius were three basic guides (i.e. ruler
guides subject, father guides son, and husband guides wife), five constant virtues
(i.e. benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity), and the doctrine
of harmony. Confucius believed that Renor human heartedness/benevolence is
the highest virtue an individual can attain and that this is the ultimate goal of
education (McGreal, 1995). Renis a strictly natural and humanistic love, based
upon spontaneous feelings cultivated through education.
The path to the attainment of Renis the practice of Li. Lican be interpreted
as rituals, rites or proprieties. In its broadest sense, the term includes all moral
codes and social institutions. In its fundamental but narrow sense, it means
socially acceptable forms of behaviour (McGreal, 1995). In addition, Liinvolves
the deliberate devices used by the intellectuals to educate people and maintain
social order. Since Liis a term for moral codes and social institutions, people
are tempted to think that the practice of Li (proprieties)is intended to enforce
conformity with social order at the cost of individuality (McGreal, 1995).
However, in Confucianism, an individual is not an isolated entity. Confucius
said, ‘In order to establish oneself, one has to establish others. This is the way
of a person of Ren’ (McGreal, 1995: 5). Therefore, individualisation and sociali-
sation are two aspects of the same process.
The principle governing the adoption of Liis Yi, which means righteous-
ness or proper character and is a principle of rationality. Yiis the habitual prac-
tice of expressing one’s cultivated feeling at the right times and in the right
places. Confucius said: ‘Junzi(a perfect person or superior) is conscious of, and
receptive to Yi, but Xiaoren(a petty person) is conscious of, and receptive to
gains’ (McGreal, 1995: 6).
According to Confucius, the right method of governing is not by legisla-
tion and law enforcement, but by supervising the moral education of the people
(McGreal, 1995: 6). The ideal government for him is a government of wuwei
(non-action) based on the solid groundwork of moral education. The reason
given by Confucius is: ‘If you lead the people with political force and restrict
them with law and punishment, they can just avoid law violation, but will
have no sense of honour and shame. If you lead them with morality and guide
them with Li, they will develop a sense of honour and shame, and will do good
of their own accord’ (McGreal, 1995: 7). This is the doctrine of appealing to the
human heart: self-realisation toward external world peace (harmony) and a
peaceful world and orderly society are the ultimate goal of Confucianism.
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