criteria (Barham and Devine, 1990; Brewster, 1988; Harvey, 1985; Mendenhall
et al., 1987; Miller, 1972; Tung, 1981). According to Miller (1972) there are two
major reasons for this practice: first, the difficulty of identifying and measur-
ing the relevant interpersonal and cross-cultural skills, and secondly, the self-
interest of the selectors, who will try to minimise the personal risk involved in
selecting a candidate who might fail on the job. Technical competence will
almost always prevent immediate failure on the job. A more practical reason
for the lack of attention to factors such as relational skills, cultural empathy
and partner/family support in selection lies in the actual selection procedures
adopted by companies.
Brewster (1991) notes that reliance on personal recommendations for expa-
triate postings from either specialist personnel staff or line managers is wide-
spread. The result is that the outcome of selection interviews is more or less
pre-determined and negotiating the terms of the offer takes precedence over
determining the suitability of the candidate. In a provocatively titled article:
‘The Coffee-machine System: How International Selection Really Works’ Harris
and Brewster (1999) develop this idea further and provide a typology of inter-
national manager selection systems based on the distinction between open and
closed systems and formal and informal systems. Chapter 14 provides a more
extensive description of this typology and its implications for the role of women
in international management. The closed/informal system was most frequent
among the organisations that Harris and Brewster studied. The researchers
adopted the term ‘the coffee-machine system’ as a catchy summary for this type
of selection system. The process starts with a senior line manager (usually male)
who is joined by a colleague while waiting for his coffee at the coffee machine:
How’s it going?
Oh, you know, overworked and underpaid.
Tell me about it. As well as all the usual stuff, Jimmy in Mombai
has just fallen ill and is being flown home. I’ve got no idea who
we can get over there to pick up the pieces at such short notice.
It’s driving me crazy.
Have you met that Simon on the fifth floor? He’s in the same
line of work. Very bright and looks like going a long way. He was
telling me that he and his wife had a great holiday in Goa a couple
of years ago. He seems to like India. Could be worth a chat.
Hey thanks. I’ll check him out.
No problem. They don’t seem to be able to improve this coffee
though, do they? (Harris and Brewster, 1999: 497)As Harris and Brewster indicate, the decision, that in effect has already been
taken, is subsequently legitimised by organisational processes. The inter-
national HRM department will usually only become involved to deal with the
financial aspects and practical arrangement related to the transfer. The disad-
vantages of this type of selection system are obvious. Candidates are not
270 International Human Resource Management