substitution), others-orientation (i.e. the ability to form relationships and the
willingness to communicate with host nationals) and perceptual orientation
(i.e. the ability to understand the behaviour of others).
Self-orientationmay be particularly important for female assignees due to
the need for them to demonstrate exceptional competence in order to be
accepted by colleagues. They must also be able to manage the stress resulting
from being the only woman in a given work setting. Ability to handle stress-
ful situations and confidence in one’s abilities have been found to be posi-
tively related to cross-cultural adjustment (Black, 1988, Mendenhall and
Oddou, 1988).
Others orientationcould provide women with a competitive advantage on
global assignments. Women’s superior interpersonal skills (see above) should
enable them to form relationships with host nationals as colleagues and
clients. However, socio-cultural norms can be problematic for women in this
respect.
Perceptual orientationof women is important in host countries which have
a lower rate of women managers (Caligiuri and Tung, 1998). Understanding
both cultural and gender differences in host societies and being flexible in
one’s attitudes towards these has been seen to be a factor of adjustment
(Harvey, 1985; Mendenhall and Oddou, 1985).
Caligiuri and Lazarova (2002) take the concept of social interaction further
and suggest that this, together with social support, is a critical determinant of
cross-cultural adjustment for women due to their unique position in work and
particularly if they are alone on an assignment. Key factors influencing a
woman’s ability to form relationships during global assignments are seen as her
own affiliating personality characteristics; the extent to which host national
cultural norms towards developing relationships with women form a con-
straint; and situational constraints such as language skills and job constraints.
Sources of social interaction and support include family, colleagues, host
nationals, mentors, other expatriates, and host national functionaries. These
interactions can deliver emotional, informational and instrumental support,
which is linked to successful cross-cultural adjustment (See Figure 14.1).
Family characteristicsSuccess in international assignments is a function not just of the individual but
also of the partner and family. Increasing problems are being experienced by
organisations in trying to resolve dual-career issues in international assign-
ments (Caligiuri and Cascio, 1998; Harvey, 1995, 1996, 1997). Research into
dual-career couples undertaking long-term assignments highlights the need to
take into account both partners’ willingness to relocate in order to ensure a suc-
cessful assignment (Harvey, 1995, 1996, 1997; Linehan and Walsh, 2000. The
disruption caused by geographical relocation has also been seen to create
Women’s Role in International Management 367