BUYERBEHAVIORASPROBLEMSOLVING 89
Itispossible(andusual)tohaveneedsthatarelatent(unstimulated)andthatthereforedo
notserveasthemotiveofbehavior.Thesourcesofthisarousalmaybeinternal(peopleget
hungry),environmental(youseeanadfora BigMac),orpsychological(justthinkingabout
foodcancausehunger).Itispossible(andusual)tohaveneedsthatarelatent(unstimu-
lated)andthatthereforedonotserveasthemotiveofbehavior.
Formotivationtobeusefulinmarketingpractice,a marketingmanagermustunder-
standwhatmotivesandbehaviorsareinfluencedbythespecificsituationinwhichcon-
sumersengageingoal-directed,problem-solvingbehavior.
Motivationflowsfromanunmetneed,asdoesallconsumerproblemsolving.Per-
hapsthebestknowntheorydealingwithindividualmotivationisprovidedintheworkof
A.H.Maslow.OneofthemostimportantpartsofMaslow'stheoryishisdevelopmentof
a modelconsistingofseveraldifferentlevelsofneedsthatexistina humanbeingandrelate
toeachotherviaa "needbierarchy."Maslowhasdifferentiatedbetweenfivelevelsofneeds.
Thefirstoftheseconcernsitselfwithphysiologicalneeds; thatis,hunger,thirst,andother
basicdrives.Alllivingbeings,regardlessoftheirlevelofmaturity,possessphysiological
needs.Physiologicalneedsareomnipresentandareofa recurrentnature.^7
SafetyandsecurityneedsaresecondinMaslow'shierarchy.Thedifferencebetween
physiologicalneedsandsafetyandsecurityneedsissomewhathazy.Safetyandsecurity
implya continuedfulfillmentofphysiologicalneeds.Thisisanextensionofthemorebasic
needs.
ThirdinMaslow'shierarchyofneedsaretheloveneeds.Thesearetheneedsforbelong-
ingandfriendship.':'heyinvolvea person'sinteractionwithothers.Thefourthlevelofneeds
inMaslow'shierarchyistheesteemneeds. Theseareneedsrelatedtofeelinggoodabout
oneselfandhavinga positiveself-image.
ThefifthandhighestlevelinMaslow's needshierarchyis theneedforself-actualization
orself-fulfillment.Thisneedcanbedefinedastheneedofa persontoreachhisfullpoten-
tialintermsoftheapplicationofhisownabilitiesandinterestinfunctioninginhisenvi-
ronment.
ItisimportantindiscussingtheselevelsofMaslow'shierarchytopointouttwoaddi-
tionalfactors.First,Maslowhasclearlyindicatedthatthesefivelevelsofneedsoperateon
anunconsciouslevel.Thatis,theindividualisprobablynotawareofconcentrationupon
oneparticularneedoroneassortmentofneeds.O!leofthemisunderstandingsassociated
withMaslow'stheoryisthathebelievesthefiveneedstobemutuallyexclusive.That,in
fact,isnottheintentofMaslow.Tothecontrary, severaloftheseneedsmayoccursimul-
taneouslyforanyoneindividual; therelativeimportanceofeachneedforanyoneindi-
vidualdeterminesthehierarchyinvolved.
WhenweattempttointegrateMaslow'sneedshierarchywiththeconceptofseg-
mentation,wecanseethata managermight findcertainsubgroupsthatfittogetherbecause
ofsomehomogeneityofneeds.Forexample,a marketermaytargeta groupwithstrong
self-esteemneedsindesigninga promotionalprogramforcosmetics.Appealstohigher-
orderneedsareimportantformanyproductsandservices,evenbasiccommodities.
Personalityisusedtosummarizeallthetraitsofa personthatmakehirn/herunique.
Notwopeoplehavethesametraits, butseveralattemptshavebeenmadetoclassifypeo-
plewithsimilartraits.Perhapsthebest-knownpersonalitytypesarethoseproposedbyCarl
Jung,asisa variationontheworkofhisteacher,SigmundFreud.Hispersonalitycate-
goriesareintrovertandextrovert.Theintrovertisdescribedasdefensive,inner-directed,
andwithdrawnfromothers.Theextrovertisoutgoing, other-directed,andassertive. Sev-
eralothermoreelaborateclassificationshave alsobeendevised.
Variouspersonalitytypes,likepeoplewithvariousmotives,arelikelytorespondin
differentwaystodifferentmarketofferings.Forexample,anextrovertmayenjoytheshopping