Accurate Memory A possible objection to the constructionist theory is the ob-
servation that people can sometimes remember past events accurately. A record-
keeping theory of memory claims that accurate memory occurs when a person
successfully locates a memory record. How can the constructionist theory ac-
count for accurate recollections? And, one might also object, what about people
who have extraordinarily accurate memories, who seem to have a memory
system that works like a videotape machine?
Constructionist theory implies that there are three circumstances in which
memory is likely to be accurate. First, as I have already discussed, construc-
tionist theory predicts that repetitious events, like always having iced tea with
dinner, should be well remembered, because they promote the creation of
strong connections among elements. A high probability, therefore, exists that at
least some of the relevant connections created by the repetitive event will re-
main stable over time and so permit the accurate reconstruction of that event.
Research shows that information that is repeated is more easily remembered
than information that is presented only once (e.g., Jacoby, 1978; Greeno, 1964).
To be fair, record-keeping theories also predict that repetition improves mem-
ory, because repetition would increase the number of records of that event,
making any one record easier to find.
Second, constructionist theory predicts that recent events, such as what one
ate for breakfast this morning, should be well remembered, because the
strength of the connections among elements representing recent events would
not yet be weakened by subsequent events. Researchers since Ebbinghaus have
observed that recently experienced events are usually the easiest to remember
(Ebbinghaus, 1885; Wickelgren, 1972).
Record-keeping theories need a modification to predict that recent events are
better remembered. The modification is that recent events are stored in a more
accessiblemannerorlocation.Onewaytovisualizethatistoimaginethat
events are stored in a push-down stack (Anderson & Bower, 1973). Recent
eventsarefirstplacedatthetopofthestackbutaregraduallypushedfurther
down into the stack by the continuous storage of even more recent events. The
retrieval mechanism would begin its search at the top of the stack.
Third, constructionist theory predicts that unusual or distinctive events
should be well remembered because they promote the creation of connections
among elements that would not likely be reconfigured by future events. Con-
sider an unusual event such as becoming nauseated after eating lamb chops.
The connection between the feeling of nausea and the idea of lamb chops is not
likely to be diminished by subsequent dinner experiences, because lamb chops
would not ordinarily become associated with other ill feelings nor would nau-
sea become associated with other entrees. Any subsequent activation of the
lamb chops idea, then, is also likely to activate the feeling of nausea, permitting
accurate memory for that experience of nausea.
Record-keeping theories could also predict that distinctive events are better
remembered.Onewaytodosoistoimaginethateventsarestoredinlocations
that reflect the attributes of the event. Memories of happy experiences might be
stored in one place, memories of car repair experiences might be stored in an-
other place, and so on. A distinctive event has a collection of attributes that is
different from other events and so would be stored in an uncluttered place in
322 R. Kim Guenther