50 G.Kubik has managed to link one contemporary form of batuque to rhythmic patterns of the Zambeze Valley.
See ‘Afrikanische Musikkulturen’, pp. 138–40.
51 Karasch, Slave life, p. 244.
52 J.R.Tinhorão, Pequena história da música popular. Da modinha a lambada (São Paulo: Art Editora, 1991),
pp. 47–57.
53 J.R.Tinhorão, História social, pp. 84–9.
54 Marta Abreu, O Império do Divino. Festas religiosas e cultura popular no Rio de Janeiro, 1830–1900 (Rio de
Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 1999), pp. 56, 83.
55 Tiago de Oliveira Pinto, Capoeira, Samba, Candoblé. Afro-Brasilianische Musik im Recôncavo, Bahia (Berlin:
Museum für Völkerkunde, 1991), p. 110.
56 The term samba is clearly of Kongo/Angolan origin—even though scholars do not agree on the exact etymology.
See wa Mukuna, Contribuição Bantu, pp. 91–2. The song ‘Pelo telefone’ (1917) marks the foundational moment
for its contemporary Brazilian meaning.
57 To avoid confusing the reader I have omitted the discussion of other related forms, such as the jongo or the fofa.
For more details see Tinhorão, História social. For the relation between batuque and different types of samba see
also E.Carneiro, Folguedos tradicionais (Rio de Janeiro: FUNARTE/INF, 1982). pp. 27–54.
58 Karasch, Slave Life, pp. 282–4.
59 A.J.R.Russell-Wood, ‘Black and Mulatto Brotherhoods in Colonial Brazil: A Study in Collective Behavior’,
Hispanic American Historical Review, Vol. 54, No. 4 (1974), p. 576.
60 Kubik, ‘Afrikanische Musiktraditionen’, p. 134.
61 F.Ortiz, Los bailes y el teatro de los negros en el folklore de Cuba (La Habana: Letras Cubanas, 1993), p. 291.
62 J.R.Tinhorão, Os negros em Portugal. Uma presença silenciosa (Lisboa: Caminho, 1988), pp. 148–60.
63 M.de Mello e Souza, Reis negros no Brasil escravista. História da Festa de Coroação de Rei Congo (Belo
Horizonte: Editora UFMG, 2002), p. 329.
64 E.W.Kiddy, ‘Who is the King of Congo? A New Look at African and Afro-Brazilian Kings in Brazil’, in
Heywood, Central Africans, p. 182; Berlin, From Creole to African, p. 275.
65 The full account of this fascinating episode is told by Soares, Devotos da cor.
66 For the formation of the Yoruba nation, see J.Lorand Matory, ‘The English Professors of Brazil: On the
Diasporic Roots of the Yoruba Nation’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 41 (1999), No. 1,
pp. 72–103; for a discussion of the parallel formation of colonial identities in Brazil and Cuba in the wider
context of ‘racial projects’ and the construction of national identity, see M.Zeuske and M.Röhrig Assunção,
‘“Race”, Ethnicity and Social Structure in 19th Century Brazil and Cuba’, Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv, Vol.
24, Nos 3–4 (1998), pp. 375–444; see also S.Palmié, ‘Ethnogenetic Processes and Cultural Transfer in Afro-
American Slave Populations’, in W.Binder (ed.), Slavery in the Americas (Würzburg: Königshausen and
Neuman, 1993), pp. 337–64.
67 J.Fagundes Hauck et al., História da Igreja no Brazil (Petrópolis: Vozes, 1979), Vol. I, pp. 247–9.
68 For the festival of the Divine Spirit in Rio, see the groundbreaking work of M.Abreu, O Império do Divino.
Festas religiosas e cultura popular no Rio dejaneiro, 1830–1900 (Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 1999). For a
brief English introduction to the festival of Bomfim in Bahia, see L.M.Silverstein, ‘The Celebration of Our Lord
of the Good End: Changing State, Church and Afro-Brazilian Relations in Bahia’, in D.J.Hess and R.A.DaMatta,
The Brazilian Puzzle. Culture on the Borderlands of the Western World (New York: Columbia University Press,
1995), pp. 134–54
69 M.Abreu, O Império do Divino, p. 92.
70 See for example E.Carneiro, O quilombo dos Palmares (São Paulo: Editora Nacional, 1988), pp. 64, 116.
71 J.K.Thornton, ‘The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 30 (1988),
pp. 360–78.
72 For a brief synthesis, see W.J.Baker, Traditional Sports, Africa’, in D.Levinson and K.Christensen (eds),
Encyclopaedia of World Sport. From Ancient Times to the Present (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1996),
pp. 1062–7.222 NOTES