This institution pioneered studies of lithics, due to the inXuence of both
foreigners (the Frenchman Charles Wiener (1851–1919) and the Canadian
Charles Friedrich Hartt (1840–78)) and to Brazilian scholars (Herculano
Ferreira Penna (1810–67) and Joa ̃o Barbosa Rodrigues (1842–1909)). Other
studies were undertaken by Hartt, Karl Rath, Ricardo Krone (1861–1918) and
the German naturalist Fritz Mueller (1821–97), who analysed shell mounds
and human anthropology, the latter while being employed by the National
Museum (Funari 1999: 20). A Swiss scholar, Emil Goeldi (1859–1917),
worked for the Para ́Museum (Museu Paraense), which he used as the basis
from which to explore the Amazon Basin. The number of foreign scholars
working on Brazilian archaeology was not dissimilar to those employed in
other spheres of Brazilian life during the nineteenth century, a time when the
country experienced a large migrating inXux from Europe. The diaspora of
European archaeologists working in Brazil contributed to the arrival of the
hegemonic knowledge. Such information, however, came through other
routes as well, as shown by the correspondence maintained between members
of the IHGB and partners in other parts of the Western world. An analysis of
its content has highlighted the existence of aXuid communication between
Brazilian and other researchers in the world, including colleagues from
institutions such as the Ethnological Society of Paris, the Society of American
Archaeology, the Society of American Ethnology, the Society of Antiquaries of
France, and the Royal Society of Northern Antiquarians of Denmark (Ferreira
1999: 25). This high level of interaction also took place with other neighbour-
ing countries such as Argentina, as illustrated by the frequent communica-
tions between Brazilian and Argentinian curators of natural history museums
with archaeological collections during the second half of the nineteenth
century (Lopes & Podgorny 2001).
As in Brazil, in Canada contacts with Europe together with the immigra-
tion of European scholars and the founding of societies and opening of
museums became an important factor for the development of archaeology.
Societies were created from the 1820s but only in the 1850s did some interest
in archaeology develop in the Natural History Society of Montreal (1827), the
Canadian Institute (1851), the Natural History Society of New Brunswick
(St John), and the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science (Halifax),
the latter two founded in 1862. Anthropological collections were housed
in museums that were being created at the time, such as the Ottawa
National Museum, Montreal’s Natural History Society museum, the McGill
University’s Peter Redpath Museum, the museum of Laval University and the
Ryerson’s Museum of Natural History and Fine Arts. These were small
museums in comparison to some in Latin America but not unlike many
provincial museums in Europe (Pyenson & Sheets-Pyenson 1999: 143–4).
Archaeology of the Primitive 289