and documents and also of ancient material culture. Throughout the century
historiography became politicized in the name of the national interest (Berger
et al. 1999a: 6). Increasingly, there was a process of essentializing what a
nation was, so that it could be described as an individual with a character. The
proper understanding of the national character could not be acquired but
through a higher understanding of its past. The well-known Danish archae-
ologist, Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae (1821–85), put it this way:
A nation which respects itself and its independence cannot possibly rest satisWed with
the consideration of its present situation alone. It must of necessity direct its attention
to bygone times, with the view of enquiring to what original stock it belongs, in what
relations it stands to other nations, whether it has inhabited the country from
primeval times or immigrated thither at a later period...; so as toascertain by
what means it has arrived at its present character and conditions. For it is not until
these facts are thoroughly understood, that the people acquire a clear perception of
their own character, that they are in a situation to defend their independence with
energy, and to labour with success at the progressive development, and thus to
promote the honour and well-being of their country.
(Worsaae 1849: 1).Worsaae was in this way linking the knowledge about the past with freedom,
independence and progress. In a diVerent part of Europe, in Central Europe,
as early as 1843 Jan Erazim Vocel (1803–71) had proposed to call archaeolo-
gists’ practice by the term ‘Czech national archaeology’ (Sklena ́r 1983: 69).
The interest in the past was not new (Chapters 2 and 11), but during this
period it grew and became an essential tool in the process of nation-building.
Key components in nation-building at this time were national histories,
historical paintings, the construction of historical townscapes and the practice
of novel professions such as that of archaeologist. Regarding national histor-
ies, a series of them were published in the central decades of the nineteenth
century. Interestingly, most of them referred back to the medieval period as
the glorious origin of the nation, and only a few delved deeper into the past.
An early example of these histories was Guizot’sHistoire de la civilisation en
Europe(1829–32), in which Europe mainly meant France, which identiWed
feudalism with the forging of the French nation. Published more than twenty
years later, Michel Hennin’sMonuments de l’Histoire de France(1856) began
with Childe ́ric in 481ce(Haskell 1993: 302). The Middle Ages were also the
point of departure for Macaulay’sHistory of England(1849); Kliuchevskij’s
Russian, and Oliveira Martins’ Portuguese national histories (Fabia ̃o 1996: 93;
Shnirelman 1996: 224). Historical painting, so fashionable during most of the
nineteenth century, also sought inspiration from history, often using a selec-
tion of themes taken from the Middle Ages. Examples can be found in most
342 National Archaeology in Europe