(1806–96). He had been trained in Paris by Caumont. Back in Portugal, he
was made responsible for many of the restorations of the period. He single-
handedly began teaching archaeology (including palaeography, epigraphy and
philology) from 1847. He also wrote a catalogue on the great medieval
Portuguese buildings, which included photographic documentation (Martins
2003).
HUMAN MORPHOLOGICAL DIVERSITY, PHRENOLOGY,
AND CRANIOLOGYArguably one of the most original research programmes developed in the
nineteenth century related to the study of the morphology of the human
body, and the signiWcance of the variability in its form. Among the various
perspectives, three will be discussed below: racial studies, phrenology, and
craniology. The scientiWc classiWcation of races had originated in rationalism
during the Enlightenment. In hisSystema Naturae (1735) Linnaeus had
clustered humans within the order of quadrupeds, breaking with the religious
interpretation that, after Genesis, had placed human beings in a special
position between animals and God. In a second edition he went further,
separating humans intoWve races according to skin colour, all of them
springing from a single, original group. A division that became more popular,
however, was undertaken by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840). In
the third edition of his workOn the Natural Variety of Mankind, he distrib-
uted humankind intoWve races, one of them the ‘Caucasian’ of white skin
colour (Liebersohn 1998: 135–6; MacMaster 2001: 12–13), although many
alternative variations were established by other scholars (Banton 1988).
Throughout the nineteenth century, however, it became clear that colour
had to be supplemented by other measurements, and physical taxonomy
became popular.
One of the pseudo-sciences developed at the turn of the century was that of
phrenology which maintained that ‘a particular form of brain is the invariable
concomitant of particular dispositions and talents, and this holds in the case
of nations as well as of individuals’ (Anonymous 1825: 7). This viewpoint was
Wrst developed in Vienna by the German Swabian physician Franz Joseph Gall
(1758–1828), but his ideas were soon condemned. His theories, nonetheless,
spread in the 1820s to other countries in Western Europe and the US, being
key in its introduction to Britain theWgure of the German Johann Gaspar
Spurzheim (1776–1832), and in the acceptance of one of its forms, phreno-
logical naturalism, that of George Combe (1788–1858). The reception of
Liberal Revolutions (c. 1820–1860) 345