Government Finance Statistics Manual 2014

382 Government Finance Statistics Manual 2014

country and making an assessment as to whether the

tax base in each circumstance is something that has a

negative environmental impact.

A7.116 Since the application of this defi nition

may vary across countries, for the purposes of inter-

national comparison of environmental taxes, lists of

relevant taxes bases that satisfy this defi nition have

been developed by the Organisation for Economic

Co-operation and Development and Eurostat.

A7.117 Th e consideration of the tax base in the

determination of the environmental status of a tax is

an exception to the general approach to defi ning the

environmental status on the basis of the purpose of

the transaction. However, in the case of taxes, gener-

ally the taxpayer does not know in advance as to what

the tax payment might be used for by the govern-

ment. Nor are the reasons for levying a tax as stated

by the legislator a reliable basis for international com-

parisons. Th e primary purpose of taxation may some-

times be to create incentives to reduce environmental

pressures, or to raise revenue for the purpose of fi -

nancing environmental protection. However, in many

cases, the specifi c reason may not be stated and oft en

the primary purpose of taxation is the raising of funds

to pay for general social services, such as health and

education.

A7.118 In cases where the use of the tax revenue is

known, these taxes are considered “earmarked taxes.”

Th ose taxes that are earmarked for environmental

protection are relevant in the calculation of environ-

mental protection expenditure.

A7.119 Th ere are four broad categories into which

environmental taxes are generally grouped. Th ese are:

• Energy taxes—Th is category includes taxes on
  energy products used for both transport and sta-
  tionary purposes. Taxes on fuel used for trans-
  port purposes should be shown as a separate
  subcategory of energy taxes. Energy products for
  stationary use include fuel oils, natural gas, coal,
  and electricity. Taxes on carbon are included
  under energy taxes rather than under pollution
  taxes. If they are identifi able, carbon taxes should
  be reported as a separate subcategory within
  energy taxes. A special type of carbon taxes is
  payments for tradable emission permits. Th e
  treatment of payments for these permits is dis-
  cussed later in this section.
  
  
  • Transport taxes—Th is category mainly includes
    taxes related to the ownership and use of motor
    vehicles. Taxes on other transport equipment
    (e.g., planes) and related transport services (e.g.,
    duty on charter or scheduled fl ights) are also
    included here as are taxes related to the use of
    roads. Th e transport taxes may be “one-off ” taxes
    related to imports or sales of the equipment or
    recurrent taxes, such as an annual road tax. Taxes
    on petrol, diesel, and other transport fuels are in-
    cluded under energy taxes.
  
  
  
  


• Pollution taxes—Th is category includes taxes
  on measured or estimated emissions to air and
  water, and the generation of solid waste. An ex-
  ception is taxes on carbon, which are included
  under energy taxes, as discussed earlier. Taxes on
  sulphur are included here.


• Resource taxes—Th is category typically includes
  taxes on water abstraction, extraction of raw
  materials, and other resources (e.g., sand and
  gravel). Consistent with the general scope of envi-
  ronmental taxes, payments to government for the
  use of land or natural resources are treated as rent
  and therefore are excluded from resource taxes.

Treatment of value-added taxes

A7.120 Generally, value-added taxes (VAT) are

excluded from the defi nition of environmental taxes

because they are considered to have no infl uence on

relative prices in the same way that other taxes on

environmental tax bases do (i.e., VAT is levied on a

broad range of goods and services regardless of their

impact on the environment). Th is lack of direct in-

fl uence is also refl ected in the deductible nature of

VAT for many taxpayers. Th ere is one relatively spe-

cifi c exception to this general treatment. In princi-

ple, where VAT is calculated on a price that includes

a duty or tax already determined to be an environ-

mental tax, the relevant amount of nondeductible

VAT (equal to the VAT rate multiplied by the amount

of the environmental tax excluding the part that is

deductible by the taxpayer) can also be considered to

be part of environmental taxes and classifi ed based

on the nature of the underlying tax base. Such a situ-

ation may occur when VAT on petrol/gasoline is cal-

culated, including the fuel duty paid on hydrocarbon

oils. In practice, the ability to separately identify this

amount of VAT may require additional information.