Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering: An Integrated Approach, 3e

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2.3 Electrons in Atoms • 21

energy of a state in one shell with states in an adjacent shell, which is especially true

ofdandfstates; for example, the energy of a 3dstate is generally greater than that

ofa4s.

Electron Configurations

electron state The preceding discussion has dealt primarily withelectron states—values of energy

that are permitted for electrons. To determine the manner in which these states

Pauli exclusion are filled with electrons, we use thePauli exclusion principle,another quantum-

principle mechanical concept. This principle stipulates that each electron state can hold no

more than two electrons, which must have opposite spins. Thus,s,p,d, andfsubshells

may each accommodate, respectively, a total of 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons; Table 2.1

summarizes the maximum number of electrons that may occupy each of the first four

shells.

Of course, not all possible states in an atom are filled with electrons. For most

atoms, the electrons fill up the lowest possible energy states in the electron shells and

subshells, two electrons (having opposite spins) per state. The energy structure for a

sodium atom is represented schematically in Figure 2.5. When all the electrons oc-

cupy the lowest possible energies in accord with the foregoing restrictions, an atom is

ground state said to be in itsground state.However, electron transitions to higher energy states are

possible, as discussed in Chapters 12 and 19. Theelectron configurationor structure

electron

configuration of an atom represents the manner in which these states are occupied. In the conven-

tional notation the number of electrons in each subshell is indicated by a superscript

after the shell–subshell designation. For example, the electron configurations for hy-

drogen, helium, and sodium are, respectively, 1s^1 ,1s^2 , and 1s^22 s^22 p^63 s^1. Electron

configurations for some of the more common elements are listed in Table 2.2.

At this point, comments regarding these electron configurations are necessary.

valence electron First, thevalence electronsare those that occupy the outermost shell. These electrons

are extremely important; as will be seen, they participate in the bonding between

atoms to form atomic and molecular aggregates. Furthermore, many of the physical

and chemical properties of solids are based on these valence electrons.

In addition, some atoms have what are termed “stable electron configurations”;

that is, the states within the outermost or valence electron shell are completely filled.

Normally this corresponds to the occupation of just thesandpstates for the out-

ermost shell by a total of eight electrons, as in neon, argon, and krypton; one ex-

ception is helium, which contains only two 1selectrons. These elements (Ne, Ar,

Kr, and He) are the inert, or noble, gases, which are virtually unreactive chemically.

Some atoms of the elements that have unfilled valence shells assume stable electron

Increasing energy

3 p

3 s

2 s

1 s

2 p

Figure 2.5 Schematic representation of the

filled and lowest unfilled energy states for a

sodium atom.