- Popes Innocent III (r. 1198–1216), Gregory IX (1227–1241), and Innocent IV
(1243–1254) were especially powerful vis-à-vis secular rulers. Sources on papal
organizational growth (Southern, 1970; Ullman, 1970; Kelley, 1986; Poole, 1915;
Waley, 1961). - Ranking of philosophers into major, secondary, and minor is done according to
their long-term influence, indexed by the amount of reference to them in numer-
ous sources (Windelband, [1892] 1901; Geyer, 1928; Gilson, 1944; de Wulf,
1934–1947; Copleston, 1950–1977; Knowles, 1962; Weinberg, 1964; EP, 1967;
CHLMP, 1982). The account of philosophical positions draws generally on these
and other sources (Pieper, [1950], 1960; Evans, 1980; Paré, Brunet, and Tremblay,
1933; Southern, 1995; individual articles in EP, 1967, and DSB, 1981). - The debate over the Forms goes back to Plato’s Parmenides and Aristotle’s Meta-
physics. Nominalism was upheld by Socrates’ contemporary and rival Antisthenes,
and later by some of the Stoics, who incorporated materials from the Cynic
position flowing from Antisthenes (Weinberg, 1964: 80). The early medievals
picked up the most prominent puzzle in the literature available to them, the texts
on ancient logic. - In Figure 9.4 and the key these are 66, the translator and astrologer Michael Scotus;
as well as 78, 79, 94, 95, 96, 97, and Albert’s Dominican protégé, 92. - The number of Dominican houses by this time was equal to that of the Cistercians,
while the Franciscan total was much greater (Southern, 1970: 285). - A few of the leading philosophers were Augustinian monks, such as Giles of
Rome. The Cistercians reversed their anti-intellectual stance and established col-
leges at Paris and elsewhere from the 1240s, although they had no notable phi-
losophers until the idiosyncratic Jean of Mirecourt a century later. There were also
substantial numbers of Benedictines at the universities; to judge from the figures
at Oxford (Cobban, 1988: 318–319), they were about two thirds of the friars’
total, but they played no part in intellectual leadership. It was the Franciscans and
Dominicans specifically, not the monks in general, who provided the creativity of
this period. And they were a minority of the university students; again judging
from Oxford, the friars made up about 10 percent of the total. They are important
in philosophy in part because they almost all concentrated in theology, whereas
two thirds of the secular clergy were studying canon or civil law (Cobban, 1988:
214–215). - The curriculum within the arts faculty (later to become known as the philosophical
faculty), consisted of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, logic) and the quadrivium
(arithmetic, geometry, music—i.e., arithmetical theory of tones—and astronomy).
The Christian schools had begun by taking over the compendium of knowledge at
the end of the Roman era, combining respectively the contents of the rhetoric
schools with the scientific curriculum of the Neo-Pythagoreans. The higher faculties
derived from the distinctive structures of licensed professions which emerged in
medieval Europe. Within Christendom, the messy and conflictual overlap between
church and state made for separate professions of lawyers and theologians not
found in China or Islam, nor in the pagan Greek and Roman schools, where
lawyer-rhetorician was the primary profession but theologians did not exist in the
Notes to Pages 458–475^ •^989