distinctions, was given important political responsibilities. Other famous per-
sons were known for their ability to argue convincingly on either side of a
question; this was considered politically useful, although encouraging fears of
alliance-switching and palace intrigues. The movement of intellectuals and
diplomats from place to place, and in and out of various states’ service, fostered
cosmopolitanism; intellectual reputation became autonomous from services
rendered.
The earlier movements—branches of Confucian ju, Mohists, Yang Chu–
style primitivists, and advocates of rural self-sufficiency—consisted of wander-
ers with no fixed intellectual bases. As we see in Figure 4.2, the growth of
philosophy in a more formal sense took place as intellectual life settled down,
largely at four overlapping centers (Knoblock, 1988: 5–11, 20–34, 54–64).
The court at Wei, one of the powerful Warring States, in the center of
existing China, began to patronize the Tzu-hsia school of Confucians about
380 b.c.e. This continued for three generations. In the latter part of the century,
the king gathered a notable collection of scholars at his capital, Ta Liang. Hui
Shih, the famous logician, served as prime minister and diplomat. Other
personages included the famous debater Shunyü Kun (39 in Figure 4.2), Men-
cius, and perhaps Chuang Tzu, a friend of Hui Shih. With the accession of a
new king (ca. 320), the group dispersed; Mencius and Shunyü Kun went to
the Chi-hsia Academy. The Wei center reappeared several generations later (ca.
270–260), when Prince Mou, himself something of a traveling intellectual,
supported Kung-sung Lung and his circle.
The powerful state of Ch’i, in the east, began to patronize scholars about
350 b.c.e., perhaps in emulation of Wei. At the high point, around 320–300,
this Chi-hsia Academy had its own Scholars’ Hall, supporting seventy-six
scholars with honored titles and emoluments. Intellectual life was becoming
autonomous; scholars were not asked to participate in government but were
expected to deliberate and propound. Hundreds of additional scholars gathered
to listen and take part. Because of the invasion of Ch’i in 284 the academy
dispersed, but ten years later it was reconstituted; in this period its most
eminent figure was Hsün Tzu, until around 265 Tsou Yen arrived and brought
to dominance the Yin-Yang philosophy.
Yet another center was at the court at P’ing-yuan, under one of the princes
of Chao, to the north. This prince was said to have patronized some 1,000
scholars and retainers around 270–250. These included Hsün Tzu, who had
moved over from the Chi-hsia Academy when Tsou Yen arrived; Kung-sun
Lung and other logicians; and Prime Minister Yü Ch’ing, who wrote a Spring
and Autumn Annals of Master Yü. Tsou Yen arrived here as a visitor too,
beating Kung-sun Lung in debate, whereupon the latter retired to the court of
Wei. Hsün Tzu, too, eventually left P’ing-yuan to take a position as magistrate
Innovation by Opposition: Ancient China^ •^143