Confucianism, which had been in existence among critical scholars since the
later Han. Chu Hsi incorporated much contemporary natural science and
historical scholarship into his system, including his own theory of the evolution
of the universe from vortices, and giving a paleontologically correct explana-
tion of fossils. At the same time, he incorporated a good deal of alchemy and
the hexagram system of the Yi Ching, which had been repudiated by Ch’eng
I. In his systematic arrangement and philosophical comprehensiveness, Chu
Hsi resembles Thomas Aquinas, while his contents are more like those of
Albertus Magnus. More than his predecessors, Chu Hsi gives an explicit
metaphysical emphasis, recognizing the difference between logical and factual
priority in his discussion of li and ch’i, principle and energy/matter. In this
respect, Chu Hsi reaches a degree of reflexive awareness about abstractions
comparable to Plato and Aristotle.
Chu Hsi split this new attention space with a rival. Lu Chiu-Yüan put
forward the doctrine that li as well as time and space are entirely within the
experiencing mind. This radical idealism was a new departure for Confucian-
ism; hitherto its idealist tendencies had gone only to the extent of emphasizing
the moral unity of humanity with the universe, or positing a metaphorical
emanation of the hexagrams from an ultimate mind. Lu was a popular teacher
in his day, and debated personally with Chu Hsi over whether mind is itself
principle (Lu’s position), or whether human nature more restrictedly is the
principle which gives rise to mind (Chu’s position). For Chu, the Supreme
Ultimate is above physical form and yin-yang is within physical form, whereas
Lu refused the distinction. The two most abstract metaphysical systems to date
in Chinese philosophy (outside of Buddhism) emerged together, mutually con-
stituting each other by opposition.
The synthetic branch of Neo-Confucianism combining the Ch’eng brothers
with Chu Hsi (called Ch’eng-Chu Neo-Confucianism) eventually won official
dominance, becoming adopted as the required curriculum for the examination
system. Thereafter Neo-Confucianism became just the kind of scholasticism it
had begun by criticizing. Neo-Confucianism dominated because it brought
together all the main social interests of the literati: the investment of Confucian
cultural capital in the examinations, but also frustration with the bureaucratic
examination competition; the status appeal of spiritual cultivation, but also of
scholarly and scientific exploration; and a generally conservative stance on
economic changes which might challenge gentry dominance. As the radical
economic reformers faded out, the Neo-Confucians usurped the central posi-
tion from the narrower Confucian traditionalists.
Like Confucians generally throughout Chinese history, the Neo-Confucians
were creative only when they were in opposition; even then they always stood
at the door of official power, drawing creative energy from the prospects of
Revolutions: Buddhist and Neo-Confucian China • 313