was the Hanifites, followers of Abu Hanifa, who took a relatively soft position
of political compromise on questions of legitimate succession to the caliphate
and a moderate line on predestination. The emerging MuÀtazilites tended to be
allied with this legal school. In the next generation came a reaction led by
Malik ibn Anas (at Muhammad’s city, Medina), founder of the Malikites, who
took a vehemently literalist position against the rationalist theologians. But
Malik’s own pupil al-ShafiÀi founded a more moderate lineage (the ShafiÀites);
they softened the emphasis on QurÁanic literalism by sanctioning the use not
only of the QurÁan but also of hadith, recollections of the Prophet’s compan-
ions, which could be used as a basis for interpretation. No doubt energized by
this controversy, major work was done in al-ShafiÀi’s generation to establish a
canonical collection of hadith (see 68 and 69 in Figure 8.1). In counterpoint
came the fourth of the main legal schools, the Hanbalis (followers of Ibn
Hanbal), who used hadith to reinforce traditionalist views, and who vehe-
mently attacked the rational theologians.
Liberal and conservative impulses tended to alternate during these genera-
tions, with the conservatives coming later and in reaction to the liberal side.
The turning point came with a showdown over the political power of the
liberals. The ÀAbbasid caliphate had taken power by military force, and its
legitimacy (like that of the preceding Umayyad caliphate) was disputed by
various factions. The caliphs were casting about for religious legitimacy in
various ways, at times offering alliance with the ShiÀites, and bringing them
into their administration, at times supporting Sunni scripturalists, at other
times patronizing the practitioners of kalam (Lapidus, 1988: 123–125; Mas-
signon, 1982: 250–254). In the early 800s, the ÀAbbasids were at the height of
their economic prosperity and military power. Turning away from the QurÁanic
conservatives supported by his predecessor Harun al-Rashid, the powerful
caliph al-MaÁmun moved to establish theocratic control by championing the
doctrines of the MuÀtazilites. Among the central points was the doctrine that
the QurÁan is created and not an eternal aspect of the divine essence. To enforce
this policy would be to reduce the independence of the scriptural caretakers
of the QurÁan and justify the intervention of the caliph in interpreting relig-
ious law.
Islamic historians refer to this episode as the “Inquisition.” The pejorative
term results from the eventual failure and disgrace of this effort. Under caliph
al-Rashid (r. 786–809) there had been a persecution from the other direction,
on behalf of the emerging school of hadith and against kalam, during which
the head of the Baghdad MuÀtazilites, Bishr al-MuÀtamir, had been imprisoned
(Watt, 1985: 53; Hodgson, 1974: 1:388–389). In 827 caliph al-MaÁmun at-
tempted to force religious scholars to accept the doctrine of the created QurÁan;
al-MaÁmun died in 833, and his successors continued the policy intermittently
402 •^ Intellectual Communities: Western Paths