700 Part VII: Food Safety
heat, preservatives, irradiation, and storage condi-
tions (e.g., refrigeration, relative humidity, and gas-
eous atmosphere).
Currently there are several food preservation
technologies available for controlling microbial
growth and survival. The most commonly used tech-
nologies for controlling microbial growth include
application of low temperatures such as refrigera-
tion or freezing, reduction of water activity of the
food by drying, curing with salt or increased sugar
level, pH reduction by acidification or fermentation,
use of food preservatives, and modified atmosphere
techniques. Other preservation technologies de-
signed to inactivate foodborne organism include
heat treatment such as sterilization, cooking, retort-
ing, pasteurization, irradiation, and the use of hydro-
static pressure and pulse light. Also, use of packag-
ing materials and adequate sanitation of the food
production or processing environment can be used
to limit entry of microorganisms into the food prod-
uct and prevent recontamination of processed foods
(Gould 1989, Hall 1997). The use of a combination
of preservation techniques, often referred to as the
hurdle concept, can be very effective in controlling
microbial growth. A combination of suboptimal lev-
els of the growth-limiting factors can be very useful
where higher levels of one of the factors can be
detrimental to the quality of the product. The most
important hurdles used in food preservation include
high or low temperature, water activity (aw), redox
potential (Eh), acidity (pH), preservatives such as
sulfite, nitrite, and sorbate, and the use of competing
microorganisms such as lactic acid bacteria. The
application of an appropriate combination of these
hurdles can improve the microbial stability, sensory
and nutritional qualities, and safety of the foods.
FOOD SAFETY PROGRAMS
Traditional approaches to controlling the safety and
quality of foods involve inspection of foods after
production or processing for compliance with gener-
al hygienic practice, and where appropriate, foods
are sampled for laboratory testing. This approach
does not ensure food safety since reliance on visual
inspection and testing of finished products cannot
guarantee the absence of harmful pathogens in food.
A more effective food safety control program, called
the hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP)
program, was introduced to the food industry in the
early 1970s, and various food safety regulations
and trade bodies worldwide endorsed its use as an
effective and rational approach to assurance of
food safety. HACCP is a systematic approach to
hazard identification, assessment, and control. The
benefits of the HACCP approach to ensuring food
safety include the following:- The food industry has a better proactive tool for
ensuring the safety of foods produced, - Potential food safety problems can be detected
early, - Food inspectors can focus more on verifying
plant controls, - More effective use is made of resources by
directing attention to where the need is greatest,
and - A significant reduction in the cost of end product
testing is achieved.
There are seven key principles of HACCP. Prin-
ciple number one includes hazard analysis to iden-
tify the microbiological, chemical, and physical
hazards of public health concern. Raw materials
processing procedures, including packaging and
storage, are assessed for microbiological hazards.
The second principle is to determine the procedures
or points in the food operation where hazards can be
controlled effectively. These are called the critical
control points (CCPs). The third principle includes
the establishment of critical limits that separate ac-
ceptable from nonacceptable limits. The fourth prin-
ciple involves the development of a system to moni-
tor the CCPs so that the limits are not exceeded. The
fifth principle is to determine what corrective ac-
tions to take when the CCPs are exceeded. The sixth
principle includes the establishment of procedures
for verifying that the HACCP program is working as
expected. The seventh principle involves the docu-
mentation procedures and records for all aspects of
these six principles. These HACCP principles have
received worldwide recognition, by governments
and the food industry. Many industrial organizations
have adopted this food safety program as a means of
controlling food safety hazards.
One of the most successful food safety programs
at the consumer level is the FightBac program devel-
oped by the Partnership for Food Safety Education
(PFSE), formed in 1997. This nonprofit organization
provides education on safe handling of food to the
public. The key features of the information on safe