or moral values of the past. Their only goal was to teach the ruler how
to survive and prosper in a highly competitive world through various
measures of administrative reform, such as strengthening the central
government, increasing food production, enforcing military training,
and replacing the old aristocracy with a team of bureaucrats.
Hanfei’s theory of leadership was formulated in this context. The
tragedies of Hanfei’s life made him concentrate on understanding
the previous Legalist literature and develop a theory of leadership
which is scattered in his writing but has been integrated in this chapter
by the author. His thoughts were profoundly influenced by several
preceding Legalists, including Guan Zhong, Shang Ian, Shen Bu-hai,
and Shen Dao. Guan Zhong was a minister of Duke Huan of Chi
(685–643 BCE). He suggested the ruler carry out a series of adminis-
trative reforms that would enrich the state, strengthen the army and
make Chi one of the five hegemons of the time. From Guan Zhong’s
chapter onxin-shu(literally, art of mind) in his bookGuan Zi,^2
Hanfei adopted the ideas ofxu(emptiness),yi(one mind), andjin
(calmness).^3 Xumeans getting rid of one’s subjective prejudice to
recognize the objective facts of an event with an empty mind.Yimeans
concentrating one’s mind on a single thing.Jinmeans waiting for
the occurrence of an event with a calm and peaceful mind. Hanfei
adopted the doctrine ofxu-yi-er-jinand argued that it is necessary for
an enlightened ruler to cultivate mental capability for recognizing
the objective facts of an event by concentrating on them with a calm
and peaceful mind and an attitude of waiting.
Shang Ian was originally from Wei. He worked for a minister of
Wei, Gong-xuen Tuo, who recommended Shang Ian to the king
of Wei, but the ruler rejected the recommendation. He then went to
serve Duke Xiao of Chin as a high minister, and helped Chin to carry
out a series of reform programs. Hanfei adopted many fundamental
concepts offa(law) from Shang Ian’sBook of Lord Shang.^4 He also
noted some shortcomings in Shang Ian’s thoughts. In ruling the state
of Chin, Shang Ian strongly emphasized the strict control of people
by harsh laws, as well as the encouragement of agriculture and aggres-
sive warfare. These policies enriched the state within a short period
of time. But he paid less attention toshu(the art of manipulation) and
was unable to discriminate the cunning ministers from the loyal ones.
Thus Chin’s reform program enhanced the ministers’ power, but it
brought few benefits to the state.
Leadership theory of Legalism 111