(1995a,1995b,1995c) examined indigenous leadership behaviors
in a variety of organizations in Taiwan, including family businesses,
high-tech companies, schools, and the army, and found that PL was
widespread in his samples.
Based on a thorough review of the extant research, Farh and Cheng
( 2000 ) proposed their three-dimensional model of PL, the dimensions
being authoritarianism, benevolence, and moral leadership. Authoritar-
ianism refers to a leader’s behavior of asserting strong authority and
control over subordinates and demanding unquestioned obedience
from subordinates. Benevolence implies that a leader demonstrates
individualized, holistic concern for subordinates’ personal and familial
well-being. Moral leadership is broadly depicted as a leader’s behavior
that demonstrates superior moral character and integrity in (a) not
acting selfishly (especially refraining from abusing authority for per-
sonal gain) and (b) leading by example. Farh and Cheng’s ( 2000 )model
clearly identified the basic content domain of PL, which facilitates
subsequent empirical studies on PL.
In creating a context (Chinese) specific model, Farh and Cheng
( 2000 ) devoted a great deal of attention to the social and cultural
forces underpinning PL. Authoritarian leadership could be traced
to the cultural traditions of Confucianism and Legalism. Under the
influence of Confucianism, the father–son relationship is considered
paramount and supersedes all other social relations. By virtue of his
role, a father has legitimate authority over his children and all other
family members. Meanwhile, the Legalist doctrine, which was preva-
lent in dynastic China, called for the emperor to distrust his ministers
and maintain absolute power and control over them through political
manipulation. The confluence of these two traditions leads to Politi-
cized Confucianism, which legitimizes the superior’s absolute power
and authority over his inferiors. This tradition later generalizes to all
forms of hierarchical organizations in Chinese societies in which a
leader has the right to maintain strong authority over subordinates,
and the subordinates are obligated to obey.
Benevolent leadership also originates in Confucianism, which
emphasizes mutuality in social relations – a benevolent ruler with his
loyal ministers, a kind father with his filial sons, a righteous husband
with his submissive wife, a gentle elder brother with his obedient
younger brother, and a kind elder with the deferent junior. Relational
harmony is maintained when each party performs his/her roles dutifully.
Paternalistic leadership in Chinese organizations 173