from pre-conceived dogmas) and interdependences among objective
realities. ‘‘Seeking truth from facts,’’ according to Mao, is not only a
philosophical principle, but, more importantly, should also guide the
execution of practical affairs.
Mao contended that humankind’s social practice alone is the criter-
ion of the truth of their knowledge of the external world. ‘‘In reality,
man’s knowledge becomes verified only when, in the process of social
practice...heachieves the anticipated results’’ (Mao,1954a: 283).
It is not subjective views and feelings, but objective outcomes in
social practice, that are the ultimate criteria for judging the ‘‘truth’’
of any knowledge or theory. Mao positioned ‘‘practice’’ as the primary
and basic standpoint in the dialectical materialist theory of knowledge
(Mao,1954a: 282–285).
Mao thus distinguished between perception and reason. ‘‘Perception
only solves the problem of phenomena; reason alone solves the
problem of essence’’ (Mao1954a:286).Theresolutionofboththese
problemscannot, eveninthe slightestdegree,be separatedfrompractice.
The sole method of ‘‘knowing a thing’’ is by coming into contact with
it, or by living and practicing in its environment. This is the path to
knowledge which every person actually travels (Mao,1954a: 286–289).
‘‘There can be no knowledge apart from practice’’ (Mao,1954a:288).
Mao defined the emergence and growth of knowledge as a spiraling
process. First, knowledge must develop from a perception of pheno-
mena to a rational theory of a thing’s essence. Second, knowledge in
the form of rational theory needs to be applied to (revolutionary)
practice. Third, the validity of rational knowledge must be tested by
being redirected at the practice of changing the world, ‘‘must be again
applied in the practice of production, in the practice of revolutionary
class struggle and revolutionary national struggle, as well as in the
practice of scientific experimentation’’ (Mao,1954a: 293). In short,
‘‘[k]nowledge starts with practice, reaches the theoretical plane via
practice, and then has to return to practice’’ (Mao,1954a: 292).
If found defective in the test by practice, rational knowledge must be
revised and retested. The spiraling process of knowledge acquisition
thus goes on endlessly with the emergence and change of new condi-
tions. The spirit of Mao’s ‘‘seeking truth from facts’’ may be encapsu-
lated in his oft-quoted slogan, ‘‘No investigation, no right to speak,’’
which insists that leaders have no right to instruct or command if
they made no efforts to get to the bottom of situations and facts.
Leadership theories and practices of Mao and Deng 209