strength. They believed that conditions in many parts of China were not
ripe for the accomplishment of ambitious goals by precipitous methods,
and that realistic, pragmatic, and flexible methods suitable for local
conditions should be used instead. According to Barnett, ‘‘Pragmatism
was, in fact, Deng’s hallmark,’’ and it was pragmatism that led the
radicals to charge Deng as a ‘‘rightist’’ during the Cultural Revolution,
resulting in his deposition from power twice (Barnett, 1986 : 40).
It was perhaps Deng’s pragmatism that helped emancipate people’s
minds from Maoist conventionalities and obdurate ideologies (e.g.
‘‘whatever Mao says is correct’’), thereby expediting the success of
his reform programs (Stewart, 2001 ). For achieving the pragmatic
aims of economic success and national strength for China (which
were also Mao’s principal aims), he was open to various methods
and foreign assistance. He told the nation that a market economy
would not be in contradiction to socialism since a market eco-
nomy would help China’s efforts in economic development; and
that capitalist management methods would be good because they
could also help China’s economic aspirations. In foreign policies,
he endorsed a balanced approach to all countries (fearing none and
following none) so that China could free itself from complex world
politics, benefit from its contacts with all neighbors in the international
community, and concentrate on its own economic development
(Luo,2005b). To help resolve the issues of Hong Kong and Macao
and unify them with the mainland part of China, Deng proposed the
‘‘one country, two systems (socialism and capitalism)’’ theory, focusing
less on ideological ‘‘isms’’ and more on practical results. This pragmatic
proposal proved effective as seen in the successful return of Hong Kong
and Macao to China. However, some scholars (e.g. Ostrov, 2005 )
contend that Deng’s pragmatism was not without weaknesses. Its
exclusive focus on economic progress, Ostrov ( 2005 )avers,createda
void because of the lack of a national system of spiritual belief (which
Maoism had been able to achieve). The absence of a national belief
system contributed to the general populace’s search for new beliefs, as
manifested in the resurgence of new religions in China (Ostrov, 2005 ).
Deng’s leadership style
In sharp contrast to Mao, who was inclined toward handling
affairs under the guidance of elaborate theories and great ideals, Deng
226 Xin-an Lu and Jie Lu