traditions with economic and administrative reforms. Chen, Jefferson,
and Singh ( 1992 ) characterize Deng’s reforms as incremental and
practical, with the positive effect of reducing risks. Yang ( 2005 )
believes that Deng’s reform strategy, starkly contrasting with that of
Mikhail Gorbachev of the former Soviet Union, focused on liberal
economic reform while adhering to traditional political thoughts and
even discouraging political reforms. This approach by Deng perhaps
helped him to win support from both conservative and liberal elements
in the nation, facilitating stable yet impressive successes in his reforms.
Zheng ( 1999 ) agrees with Yang and believes that the CCP’s crackdown
on the dissidents’ pro-democracy efforts in 1989 was largely motivated
by Deng’s belief in incrementalism and pragmatism rather than in
revolutionary cataclysm. Zheng argues that Deng’s incrementalism
has enabled China to ‘‘accommodate drastic socioeconomic changes’’
and yet maintain the ability ‘‘to prevent socioeconomic chaos from
occurring, chaos that has troubled many former communist states
and Third World countries’’ (Zheng, 1999 : 1157).
Summary and conclusion
A comparison of Mao and Deng
Were Mao and Deng, the most prominent leaders in modern China, the
same or different in their leadership philosophy and practice? This
question is of great import to scholars of Chinese leadership philoso-
phy. It can be argued that Mao and Deng have both essential common-
alities and conspicuous differences between them. Their similarities
tend to belong to the realm of their fundamental thoughts; their differ-
ences are predominantly in their leadership styles and methodology.
Deng’s interactions with Mao covered half a century, and both were
among the early founders and leaders of the CCP. Biographical studies
of Deng (e.g. Evans, 1997 ; Liu, 2001 ; Stewart, 2001 ;Yu, 1995 ) reveal
that Deng’s thoughts emanated from Marxism and the Thoughts of
Mao Zedong. Because of his efforts to disseminate Marxism during
his ‘‘work-study’’ years in France by mimeographing Marxist works
and propaganda flyers, Deng was nicknamed ‘‘Dr. Mimeography’’
(Evans, 1997 ). Deng’s main job during Mao’s revolutionary wars
seemed to be ‘‘political commissar,’’ advocating Marxism and Mao
Zedong thoughts (see, for instance, Liu, 2001 ).
Leadership theories and practices of Mao and Deng 229