comprehensiveness and perfection) is not only the qualifying attribute
of a leader but also the primary means of exercising leadership in that
the leader person is the source of inspiration and the model for the
followers. In addition, leadership involves the cultivation of character
in the followers and such efforts unfold largely in the highly person-
alized role relationship between superiors and subordinates. Dyadic
and hierarchical relationship-building and the fulfillment of role
requirements are therefore a primary mechanism of leadership. In this
sense Confucianist thoughts on leadership focus on the individual
and the dyadic level. This does not mean Confucius and Mencius
neglected institutional-level leadership. Indeed, character cultivation
was believed to be most effective in a virtuous culture of benevolence
and ritual propriety and Confucianists stressed the importance of build-
ing moral and educational institutions. Nevertheless, the individual and
the dyadic are still the primary means of socialization and enculturation
in the Confucian leadership philosophy.
Sunzi’s strategic leadership philosophy could be viewed as an
integration and synthesis of ideas from Confucianism, Legalism, and
Daoism. Sunzi believed that for a war to be justified, not only must it
serve a high purpose of benevolence, but it must be victoriously
waged, humanely and benevolently, by minimizing the actual and
potential destruction of the enemy. In running military organizations,
Sunzi incorporated more Legalist institutional measures of reward and
punishment rather than the Confucian moralistic measures. He pro-
posed such systematic measures of organization and management that
one wonders if Henri Fayol, one of modern management’s founding
fathers, was inspired by Sunzi when he described the classic managerial
functions of planning, organizing, coordinating, commanding, and
controlling. Of course, the strategic and psychological manipulations
and tactics of Sunzi also recall Hanfei’s concepts of power (shi) and
tactics (shu). Sunzi also incorporated the Daoist philosophy of non-
action by stressing the importance of understanding larger political,
social, and geographical forces outside the control of the commanders,
of not forcing unprepared battles, and of not acting upon desires and
emotions including even lofty ones such as honor, bravery, and heroism.
In contrast to the Confucianist approach, the Legalist approach was
primarily at the institutional level. According to Legalism, effective
leadership lay in setting up a clear power structure and in devising and
enforcing objective, consistent, and enforceable rules and regulations.
12 Chao-chuan Chen and Yueh-ting Lee