the rulers put the people’s interests above their own interests and the
Daoof benevolent government is a matter of surviving or perishing
for the sovereign. In Chapter III of the first part of his essay on Li Lau
(Li Liao), Mencius said,
It was by benevolence that the three dynasties [in ancient China] gained the
throne, and by not being benevolent they lost it. It is by the same means
that the decaying and flourishing and the preservation and perishing of
States are determined. If the sovereign be not benevolent, he cannot preserve
the throne from passing from him. If the Head of a State be not benevolent, he
cannot preserve his rule. If a high noble or great officer be not benevolent,
he cannot preserve his ancestry temple (Legge, 1970 : 293–294).
Basing his historical account of the necessity of benevolent govern-
ment on the vicissitudes of the dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zho ̄u,
Mencius asserted that because of their kindheartedness, the founders
of these dynasties – Yu, Tang, Wen, and Wu – were able to have people’s
support. In contrast, the last emperors of the same dynasties – Jie and
Zho`u – lost people’s support as a result of their cruelty. So, if emperors
are cruel, they are doomed to lose their territory; if dukes are cruel,
they will fail to protect their states; if ministers and senior officials are
cruel, they will fail to protect themselves. All in all, where there is no
benevolent government there is no great peace or harmony throughout
the land.
Lastly, theDaoof benevolent government refers to the rule of virtue.
In Confucius’ opinion, the rule of virtue is very important because
‘‘If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them
by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment but have no
sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be
given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame,
and moreover will become good’’ (Legge, 1971 : 146). Ruling through
punitive regulations will make people flee from you and lose their
self-respect but ruling through virtue enables people to keep their
self-respect and come to you of their own accord (Yang, 1958 : 12).
The rule of virtue through benevolence has two components: inward
through self-cultivation of kindheartedness (nei sheng), and outward
(wai wang) through extending virtues to others through role models
and moral education and development, and establishing moral, social,
and cultural norms and institutions. This is the essence of benevolent
leadership, which we discuss further in the next section.
Confucian and Mencian philosophy 37