prescribed a broad variety of virtues for individuals to aim at acquiring.
Earlier we discussed six major virtues with benevolence as the core.
In addition, the following virtues were prescribed as sub-virtues, or
behaviors and processes that are instrumental to the cultivation of the
major virtues, ultimately leading to a humane, sage person.
Practicing benevolence and being an example. As stated above,
leaders must first and foremost lead in practicing the major virtues,
the most important of which is benevolence. Confucius stated, ‘‘The
most important component in governing is to love people’’ (Yang,
1958 : 189). In general, benevolent rulers should take care of the
people and extensively confer benefits on them. Specifically, benevo-
lent rulers should know the living conditions of the people, be sympa-
thetic to the poor, and take special care of the old and the young.
Leaders take the lead in doing what they ask their people to do so as to
set a good example. It should be noted that Confucius and Mencius
insisted that leaders should strive to be examples in all virtues, in all
spheres of life, and with regard to all relationships. That is to say
leaders must be exemplary people in their hearts, minds, words, deeds,
and manners, whether in their public or private lives.
Learning by reading, listening, and seeing and being cautious
and prudent. Superior-minded people are learned people. Confucius
promotes continuous learning as a major means of self-cultivation.
He said, ‘‘There are three things of which the superior people stand in
awe. They stand in awe of the ordinances of Heaven. They stand in awe
of great people. They stand in awe of the words of sages’’ (Legge, 1971 :
313). ‘‘Without recognizing the ordinances of Heaven,’’ it is impossible
to be a superior (exemplary) person. ‘‘Without an acquaintance with
the rules of Propriety, it is impossible for the character to be estab-
lished’’; ‘‘without knowing the forces of words, it is impossible to know
other people’’ (Legge, 1971 : 354). In summary, one cannot be a leader
without being always oriented toward learning and becoming learned.
With regard to the methods of learning, Confucius emphasized
the importance of combining learning with independent thinking.
Reading and learning without self-reflection, deliberation, or discus-
sion could make one even more confused whereas thinking and self-
reflection alone without learning can be dangerous as one can easily
go astray without being enlightened by the accumulated wisdom and
knowledge of the learned scholars. While book learning is the primary
means of education, Confucius also encouraged listening and seeing.
Confucian and Mencian philosophy 39