they may be good citizens. Being ‘‘Good citizens’’ in Confucius’ times
of disorder often means having respect for, and being obedient to,
authority. In the ConfucianAnalects, one of Confucius’ students,
Youzi, said, ‘‘There are very few who, being filial and fraternal, are
fond of offending against their superiors. There have been none, who,
not liking to offend against their superiors, have been fond of stirring
up confusion. The superior man bends his attention to what is radical
(i.e. a root cause). That being established, all practical courses natur-
ally grow up. Filial piety and fraternal submission!—Are they not the
root of all benevolent actions?’’ (Legge, 1971 : 138).
Confucius and Mencius therefore held that leadership originates
from leaders’ own characters, extends to dyadic interactions with
others, begins to manifest more comprehensively in the basic unit of
a community, and ends with a harmonious and benevolent world. One
of the classical examples that Confucius used often is Emperor Shun
(2255–2205 BCE) who managed his family so well that he was
selected by Emperor Yao (2357–2255 BCE) as his successor. Shun
displayed his benevolent character by being very filial to his blind
father and step-mother and also by getting along with his step-brothers.
Shun’s magnanimous character stood out even more considering that
his father and step-mother attempted to kill him several times. He
nevertheless forgave them and remained steadfastly loyal to them
(Sima, 1994 ). Furthermore, Shun was not only filial to his family
members, but also very benevolent toward those in his village and
tribe. The ultimate political goal of Confucianism is to carry on the
traditions of Emperors Yao and Shun, namely ‘‘universal harmony’’
and ‘‘sharing a state with the people.’’ This ideal was made clear in
theBook of history(Shang Shu; see Zhou, 1996 ), which described
how Emperor Yao was able to make both clans and families live in
harmony by using his own personality and morality and how he
subsequently was able to bring all the states of the empire into line.
Rule of virtue as the primary means of leadership. Benevolent
leadership leads through virtue. Confucius said, ‘‘He who exercises
government by means of his virtue, may be compared to the north polar
star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it’’ (Yang,
1958 : 12). Only by means of virtue can leaders win the ardent support
of their followers. Mencius stated that there is a way to get the empire,
namely by getting people’s support. There is a way to get people’s
support, namely, by getting their hearts (Legge, 1970 : 299–300).
Confucian and Mencian philosophy 45