on the significance of rituals and the powerful self-regulating function
of human conscience, and on the other, adhering to the implementa-
tion of institutionalized laws. In so doing, Xunzi turned philosophical
and intellectual discussions by scholars into social practices by practi-
tioners, thereby contributing to a Chinese philosophical tradition of
being practically oriented.
Facing the grave problem of reconstructing social order, Xunzi
brings forward a series of interrelated concepts regarding the require-
ments of good governance and kingship. Xunzi’s philosophy has been
studied in the West primarily from a moral and ethical perspective
(e.g. Cua, 1978 , 1979 ). In this chapter, we seek to examine the
theoretical implications of Xunzi’s philosophy for leadership and
organization. Although we do not find the exact terms ‘‘leader’’ or
‘‘leadership’’ in Xunzi, there are equivalent terms. Xunzi argued that
‘‘from birth all men are capable of forming societies. If a society is
formed without social divisions, strife would result; if there is strife,
disorder ensures; if there is disorder, fragmentation results; if there
is fragmentation, weakness comes; if there is weakness, it is impos-
sible to triumph over objects’’ (Xunzi, Book 9: 9.17). ‘‘To be able to
use them [ritual and moral principles] in commanding one’s subordin-
ates is called being lordly. A lord is one who is accomplished at causing
men to form societies’’ (Xunzi, Book 9: 9.17). In Xunzi’s time formal
leaders were rulers of states (kings and lords), assisted and counseled
by civil servants comprising scholars and officials. The ruled are the
common people, primarily the mass of peasants. In addition, Xunzi
addressed leader–subordinate relationships between kings and their
ministers and he often gave scholars and teachers the status of leader-
ship (Xunzi, Books 9, 12, and 13).
In Xunzi’s writings, two labels frequently used in the same breath
for superior leaders are ‘‘sages’’ (sheng ren) and the ‘‘noble-minded’’
(junzi). These are people equipped with supreme moral character
and wisdom, and, therefore, are held up as models of leadership.
According to Xunzi (Book 8: 8.7), these superior leaders are vital for
the survival of society and as leaders, they must have the knowledge
of the success and failure of generations of predecessors as clearly as
they know black and white; they must be good at making decisions
according to the changing social reality; and they must be able to
stabilize the political situation, calm people, and unite millions of
them as one person.
54 Yan-qin Peng, Chao-chuan Chen, and Xin-hui Yang