Horizontal distinctions refer to those between different occupations,
be they different trades practiced by commoners or specialties of
government by court administrators. Vertical distinctions are unequal
distributions of wealth, power, status, and prestige. Xunzi advocated
the creation of a hierarchy of distinctive ranks, titles, and honors for
structuring, stabilizing, and harmonizing society. ‘‘Where the classes
of society are equally ranked, there is no proper arrangement of
society; where authority is evenly distributed there is no unity; and
where everyone is of like status, none would be willing to serve the
other’’ (Xunzi, Book 9: 9.3). Clearly, Xunzi favored hierarchy because
he believed that its absence leads to conflict, fragmentation, and
disorder. There are other reasons why Xunzi advocated hierarchical
social distinctions. First, he observed that ‘‘desires are many and the
things that satisfy them relatively few’’ (Xunzi, Book 10: 10.1) and it is
completely futile to try to eliminate human desires, be they moral
education or brutal suppression. Therefore, human desires should be
satisfied where resources are available and be channeled and modified
through moral education and social and legal regulations where
resources are limited. Social distinctions become institutional mech-
anisms to channel and regulate human desires from unconstrained
conflict and strife into collaborative and productive efforts. Second,
social distinctions, especially those of an honorary and symbolic
nature, serve as rewards to encourage and reinforce acquired human
goodness and to divert desires for material wealth to desires for social
status. Furthermore, social distinctions are important artifacts and
conduits of the underlying ritual and moral principles and norms.
In summary, Xunzi advocated social distinctions for symbolic and
moral, as well as material and instrumental, reasons.
What then are the bases for social distinctions? The question in
essence is about how desired resources are allocated in ways that
promote social harmony and economic prosperity. Xunzi provided his
answers in his theory of conduct propriety, which we discuss in more
detail in the next section. Here we outline a few major criteria by which
social distinctions are made. The first is moral character. Xunzi distin-
guishes people by three broad categories of moral character: small-
minded, noble-minded, and sage, and held that power, position, and
status should be allocated according to moral distinctions. He insists
that descendants of kings and dukes should be relegated to the position
of commoners if they have not observed principles of propriety, while
Bridging Confucianism and Legalism 65