descendants of commoners, if they have accumulated culture and study
and rectified their character and conduct, should be promoted to the
rank of a prime minister, knight, or grand officer (Xunzi, Book 9: 9.1).
This position is extraordinary as it opposes hereditary succession
and selection, the hallmark determinant of feudal distinctions.
The second basis for social distinctions is ability and accomplish-
ment. ‘‘Those without morality shall be without honored status,
those without ability shall be without office, those who lack accom-
plishment shall go unrewarded...The worthy shall be honored
and the able employed, each assigned a position of appropriate
rank, with none overlooked’’ (Xunzi, Book 9: 9.12). Of the two
merit bases, moral character is held as more important than ability
because when juxtaposed, noble character is most often associated
with eminent position and status, and talent with employment and
rewards.
Besides bases for social distinctions, there are other points worth
making. First, in a benevolently governed society, all members are
entitled to a basic level of economic well-being and a minimal share
of the state’s resources regardless of their social position. A society in
which some enjoy extravagant wealth while others suffer dire poverty
is not a benevolent one and will not last long. For example, Xunzi
proposed that those with crippling physical defects should be cared
for by social welfare services. Second, symbolic social distinctions are
elaborate and clearly marked whereas material social distinctions
are less so. In fact, Xunzi cautioned against offering excessive material
rewards because it could benefit small-minded individuals just as
excessive punishment could hurt noble-minded individuals. Third,
commoners could rise to high position and status through acquiring
proper conduct. Social ranks are therefore penetrable and mobile
in that individuals can attain and lose their social distinctions on
the basis of character and ability. Lastly, although the standards of
distinction are universally applied to all individuals of a given rank
(e.g. all kings should have the loftiest moral character and know how
to identify and use talents), standards of distinction differ among
social ranks and are judged to be proper relative to a given rank.
Standards of excellence, especially for moral character, are different
for commoners, for officials, and for kings. Importantly, the more
eminent social rankings require higher standards of character and
conduct. For instance, honesty and diligence are the standards of
66 Yan-qin Peng, Chao-chuan Chen, and Xin-hui Yang