were not seen as the precondition of establishing an effective
administrative system. This is another indication of how Xunzi
departed from the strict and pure moralistic tradition of Confucianism
to be closer to more rule-oriented governance.
Philosophy of the sage-kingship
Xunzi proposed that one cannot rule the world unless one is a sage
and only when the most virtuous, wise, and capable are in the author-
ity positions can a society be well governed and prosperous. Nothing is
more important than kingship because it is the source from which
flows theDaoof governance or the rules of proper conduct (Xunzi,
Book 12). TheDaoof governance is therefore theDaoof kingship.
When asked what state administration is, Xunzi answered, ‘‘I have
heard about cultivating character, but I have never heard about
administering the state’’ (Xunzi, Book 12: 12.4). It can therefore be
argued that in Xunzi’s philosophy, governance boils down to kingship,
and kingship boils down to self-cultivation, which in turn is the foun-
dation and exemplification of a well-cultivated society. Xunzi’s king-
ship can therefore be analyzed in terms of self-cultivation for individual
conduct propriety and social cultivation for institutional propriety.
Serving as a model of self-cultivation. As discussed earlier, so far as
basic human desires are concerned, there is no difference between the
noble- and the small-minded and between the sage and the tyrannical
king. What differentiates them is that the sage and the noble attained
the highest standards in the self-cultivation process and its results.
Self-cultivation requires being methodical, stern and strict with self,
resolute in undertakings, adept in applying wisdom, upright, rich with
refinement, delighted in others’ strengths, and concerned with others’
improprieties (Xunzi, Book 8: 8.7). Xunzi further insisted on well-
roundedness and character perfection. He argued that just as the sun
sheds its light and the earth spreads its width, the noble-minded
are supposed to develop in all aspects. The noble-minded know that
impurity is imperfect. So they read continually to connect different
pieces of knowledge already acquired and ponder to further integrate
and synergize the knowledge; they interact with others to learn
the way of being a good person, to remove weaknesses, and to
cultivate good character. A sage-king and a noble-minded person
should hold themselves to the loftiest standards of character and
70 Yan-qin Peng, Chao-chuan Chen, and Xin-hui Yang