manifestations of base, instinctive human nature (which displays a
lack of benevolence, righteousness, and conduct propriety).
The paramount responsibility of a leader is therefore one of
defining and building an organizational culture under the principles
of benevolence, righteousness, and propriety. While these three prin-
ciples are inherited from teachings of Confucius and Mensius, Xunzi
emphasized and perfected the role of propriety and systematically
theorizes its function of enculturation. Whereas most Western organi-
zational culture theories regard beliefs and values as the essence of
culture (e.g. Schein, 1992 ), Xunzi’s concept of propriety focused on
practices as the best markers of culture in the daily mundane organiza-
tional life, through rites and ceremonies on one hand and behavioral
enactment on the other. Rites and ceremonies are designed to promote
and reward people and behaviors that exemplify social and cultural
values of the organization. These symbolic (as opposed to financial
and material) means of enculturation serve to maintain social distinc-
tions without causing too much social conflict arising from competition
for limited material resources. Xunzi’s prescriptions of propriety are
ultimately behavioral and practical. The role of the leader is not only
to display exemplary behaviors for followers to emulate, but also to
develop behavior norms and expectations and provide followers with
inspiration and guidance in practicing cultural principles in specific and
uncertain circumstances. Xunzi’s behavioral perspective on culture and
enculturation is especially important when organizations increasingly
profess homogeneous values that are universally good and virtuous, but
lack behavioral and practical import in the real operations of business.
Conclusion
Xunzi’s philosophy of governance and kingship can be summarized
as cultural leadership. He inherited the fundamental values of benevo-
lence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom, but rejected the notion of
goodness of human nature, and emphasized and expanded the role of
propriety both as a central value and as means of social and cultural
cultivation. In doing so, Xunzi bridged major philosophical schools of
thought regarding leadership and developed a more dynamic and
complex theory of leadership. His major contributions to leadership
theories and practices, in addition to enriching the Confucianist philo-
sophy of leadership, lie in his conceptions of the dark side of human
Bridging Confucianism and Legalism 77