Buddhism in India

Transitoriness and Transformations 93

came later than these popular stories. Some of the most famous of

the stories of ‘giving’ indicate a compulsion to give arising out of

desire for merit rather than any compassion. For example, in the

long and famous Jataka about Prince Vessantara, the Bodhisattva,

out of desire to gain ‘omniscience’ gives away his two children,

deceiving his wife in the process, to an evil Brahman who he knows

will treat them cruelly (#547).

Beyond the Jatakas, the existence of stupas and the growing

significance of statues shows much about the nature of popular

Buddhism.

The form of Buddhist devotion most encouraged was gifts to the

Sangha, which emphasised the importance of the organised commu-

nity of practitioners. But for the lay followers, there were a few rituals

along with the important custom of worshipping relics of the

Buddha. These were endorsed in the Pali canon. Fascination for the

relics of the Buddha is shown as beginning right from the time of his

death. The Mahaparinibbana Suttareports an extended division of

his ashes, with requests for these from the king of Maghada, from the

Licchavis, the Sakiyas, the Bulis, the Koliyas, Brahmans and clans of

Mallas at many villages. Some went also to the Nagas. The tooths of

the Buddha were said to be honoured even in heaven, while one was

kept in Kalinga, and another one went to the Nagas (Digha Nikaya II,

6, 24–27). The ‘mounds’ in which the ashes were kept became the

first objects of devotion. Thus, out of a very ancient tradition of burial

mounds, arose the stupas; it is these and not temples which are the

oldest religious architecture still surviving in India.

The veneration of relics and of stupas became a major aspect of

popular Buddhism, and are mentioned in the Jatakas and in The

Questions of Milinda. In the latter book the teacher Nagasena

specifically allows this for lay followers, even though it is meaning-

less to the Buddha himself: ‘If gods or men put up a building to

contain the jewel treasure of the relics of a Tathagata who does not

accept their gift, still by that homage paid to the attainment of the

supreme good...do they themselves attain to one or other of the

three glorious states.’ However, in an attempt to resolve an apparent

contradiction in Buddhist teachings, he argues that it is only

bhikkhus who were included in the injunction not to worship relics,

(Milindapanha1963: 146).

Stupas not only became ubiquitous they gradually became

elaborate and costly. They were put up everywhere, to memorialise

92 Buddhism in India

they receive often centers around the ‘three Vedas’,^2 a respected bit
of knowledge. At the same time the Vedas are criticised and even
mocked. In what is evidently an old gathatradition, a person is first
criticised for admiring the Vedas, and he agrees

A thousand Vedas will not safety bring

failing just works, or save from evil plight;

the Vedas then must be a useless thing;

true doctrine is—control yourself, do right

and then the original critic backtracks, says the Vedas are not
completely useless, but puts them in their place:

To study well the Vedas fame will bring,

but by right conduct we attain to bliss (#377, 487).

In contrast to this ironic approach to the Vedas themselves, the Vedic
sacrifice is forcefully, often ferociously criticised throughout Pali
literature, with bad Brahmans urging it on kings and the Bodhisattva
opposing it. An amusing Jataka tells the story of a jackal whose
hair, except for a top tuft, is singed in a fire; he then pretends to
be a Brahman with the exalted name of Bharadvaj who has gained
his reputation by performing sacrifices. The Bodhisattva finally
exposes him, saying ‘It is not sanctity, Bharadvaj, votary of the
Fire-God, but gluttony that has decked your crown with that top-
knot’ (#129).
The attitude towards the Buddha/Bodhisattva shown in these
stories is not so much of awe and devotion to a powerful being as
of high respect. He is described as the ‘Great Being’ but while he is
often superbly and extravagantly self-sacrificing, he is often also
simply clever and good. At times he is shown as falling prey to lust
or to pride (#490); once he fathers an illegitimate child (#487), and
in two Jatakas he is a robber. Interestingly, even though he yields
to passion in such stories, he is shown as admitting this because he
cannot lie. This may indicate a morality in which lying and murder
are taken to be by far worse sins than sexual intercourse or even
taking others’ property. But it is clear that devotional Buddhism

(^2) These early references to the Vedas always identify them as being three in number.
Evidently the Atharva Veda was at that time not given a canonical status.