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One assumption is about the response which an author expects from you, the reader: does he or she expect you
actually to do something new, or simply to consider doing something new? Or does the author just want you to be
aware of a new idea? Consider, for example, an article reviewing best practices about inclusion of students with
special needs. The author may imply, or even urge you to take a moral position: you should include these students,
the author may seem to say. But in a different article—one recommending particular teaching practices—the author
may merely ask you to think about alternatives to your normal ways of teaching. Certain strategies worked under
certain teaching conditions, the author says, so simply consider whether they might work for you as well.
A second, less obvious difference among professional publications is in their un-stated assumptions about prior
experiences and attitudes of readers. This assumption may be either helpful or frustrating, depending on you actual
prior background. A piece intended as a “framework for understanding” may assume, for example, that you are
familiar with basic theories of learning already. If you have read and understood what we outlined in Chapter 2 of
this book, the article may turn out to be relatively accessible or understandable to you even if you have relatively
little experience in actual classroom teaching, and even if you have never studied learning theories in detail. The
article might seem more accessible than you expect because, for example, it focuses primarily on how teacher's
praise affects students' learning, an idea with which you may be somewhat familiar already.
On the other hand, a professional publication may assume that you have taught school for a number of years
already, or that you are at least familiar with classroom life from the point of view not of students, but of a teacher.
An author writing about "withitness" (discussed in Chapter 7), for example, may make this assumption, since the
concept originated by observing teachers managing large group classroom activities. If you yourself are experienced
at actual teaching, reading about withitness may trigger a lot of questions about just how withit teachers are able to
be in practice, and about whether in fact they always need to be withit. You can also ask yourself these questions
even if you have not yet been a teacher yourself, of course, but they may seem less immediate or urgent.
A professional article intended to advocate for a particular educational policy or practice may make very
different assumptions about you as a reader. It may assume, for example, that you do in fact enjoy persuading
others of your point of view, even when others initially disagree or react indifferently. This sort of assumption may
show up as much in what the writing omits, as in what it includes: if the term cooperative learning activity is used
without explanation, for example, the researcher may be assuming not only that you are the sort of person—
perhaps a teacher—who knows what that term means already, but also that you already believe in the value of
cooperative learning and are motivated to explain its value to others.
In making these distinctions among published articles, keep in mind a point we made at the outset: that an
individual article usually serves more than one purpose at a time and makes more than one assumption about your
prior knowledge and about how you are supposed to respond to the article. The differences are only about
emphasis. To illustrate these ideas about the purposes and effects of research, look in the next section at three
examples of actual published articles relevant to education. The studies are not a full cross-section of educational
research or publications, but they do suggest some of the variety possible (and necessary) among them. Each
example serves a mixture of purposes, but also emphasizes one purpose in particular (perspective-taking, teaching
recommendations, or advocacy) described earlier. The authors of each example also make particular assumptions
about you, the reader—about the intellectual work which the authors expect you to do and about the motivations
Educational Psychology 357 A Global Text