Educational Psychology

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knowledge and beliefs, it is the work of Lawrence Kohlberg and his critic, Carol Gilligan. Their theories are
definitely not the only ones related to social development of students, and their ideas are often debated by other
researchers. But their accounts do explain much about social development that is relevant to teaching and
education.

Erik Erikson: eight psychosocial crises of development

Like Piaget, Erik Erikson developed a theory of social development that relies on stages, except that Erikson
thought of stages as a series of psychological or social (or psychosocial) crises—turning points in a person’s
relationships and feelings about himself or herself (Erikson, 1963, 1980). Each crisis consists of a dilemma or
choice that carries both advantages and risks, but in which one choice or alternative is normally considered more
desirable or “healthy”. How one crisis is resolved affects how later crises are resolved. The resolution also helps to
create an individual’s developing personality. Erikson proposed eight crises that extend from birth through old age;
they are summarized in Table 7. Four of the stages occur during the school years, so we give these special attention
here, but it is helpful also to know what crises are thought to come both before and after those in the school years.

Table 7: Eight psychosocial crises according to Erikson

Psychosocial crisis Approximate age Description

Trust and mistrust Birth to one year Development of trust between caregiver and child

Autonomy and shame Age 1-3 Development of control over bodily functions and activities

Initiative and guilt Age 3-6 Testing limits of self-assertion and purposefulness

Industry and inferiority Age 6-12 Development of sense of mastery and competence

Identity and role confusion Age 12-19 Development of identity and acknowledge of identity by others

Intimacy and isolation Age 19-25+ Formation of intimate relationships and commitments

Generativity and

stagnation

Age 25-50+ Development of creative or productive activities that

contribute to future generations

Integrity and despair Age 50+ Acceptance of personal life history and forgiveness of self and

others

Crises of infants and preschoolers: trust, autonomy, and initiative

Almost from the day they are born, infants face a crisis (in Erikson’s sense) about trust and mistrust. They
are happiest if they can eat, sleep, and excrete according to their own physiological schedules, regardless of whether
their schedules are convenient for the caregiver (often the mother). Unfortunately, though, a young infant is in no
position to control or influence a mother’s care giving or scheduling needs; so the baby faces a dilemma about how
much to trust or mistrust the mother’s helpfulness. It is as if the baby asks, “If I demand food (or sleep or a clean
diaper) now, will my mother actually be able to help me meet this need?” Hopefully, between the two of them,
mother and child resolve this choice in favor of the baby's trust: the mother proves herself at least “good enough” in
her attentiveness, and the baby risks trusting mother's motivation and skill at care giving.

Educational Psychology 51 A Global Text