expectations and attitudes) in mediating the relationships between environmental
phenomena (e.g, in a workplace context, organisational structures, norms and
processes) and their behavioural outcomes (such as skills and self-efficacy leading
to task-achievement). The concept of self-efficacy is centrally-placed: Bandura
defined self-efficiacy as the (individual’s) ‘beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize
and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments’’ (1997:
3). In a work motivation context, because SCT postulates that cognitive variables
have a significant mediating role in the relationship between organisational factors
and behavioural outcomes (e.g. task achievement) this opens the way for
interventions such as learning and training to modify cognitive variables and thus
enhance behavioural outcomes.
The social dimension of SCT refers to the role of learning in a social context – that
is, the way in which individuals learn from each other (through observation). It is
possible to relate the Full-Range Leadership Model (FRLM) of transformational
leadership to social learning concepts through the Idealised Influence dimension –
in particular the IIB (Idealised Influence – Behavioural) where the leader “...sets
an example to be followed, sets high standards of performance, and shows
determination and confidence” (Bass 1999: 11).
Goal-setting theory belong in the general class of cognitive theories and centres
on understanding how work goals can influence employees’ motivation and
performance. Locke (1976) discusses four ways in which goals can influence
employee performance:
directing attention and effort in a specific direction;
providing an impetus to increase effort;
providing an impetus for employees to maintain their effort over time;
stimulating employees to develop strategies for goal attainment.
Millward (2005: 208) notes that a key dimension underpinning the effectiveness
of goal setting as a motivation technique is that specific goals that ‘focus on
achieving something finite and manageable, with tangible consequences’ is
typically more effective than the more nebulous ‘do the best you can’ approach.
Variables that can predict and mediate motivation and performance include: (i)
the nature of goal setting (assigned versus participatively set goals) and
employee commitment to goals (positively influenced by participative goal setting
and individuals’ agreement with the nature of the goals) (Latham and Pinder