Generative Learning Communities: Preparing Leaders for Authentic Practice 75
assumptions. Developing new habits of thinking and behaving can be stimulated by
examining critical life events experienced by adult learners or by introducing activating
events intentionally into a learning environment (Cranton, 2002). Reflective writing, group
deliberation, and group problem solving that challenge adult learners to analyze or defend
their assumptions are examples of activating events and can be used to analyze critical life
events and their ramifications for leadership learning.
Many adult educators assume that adult learners (a) appreciate and direct their own
learning, (b) have had rich and lifelong experiences that provide contexts for their learning,
(c) engage in learning to learn about and address societal issues, (d) prefer problem-centered
learning, (e) want to apply new knowledge immediately, and (f) learn more because of
internal dispositions than because of external forces. These assumptions, based in the work of
Knowles, have been called andragogy (Knowles, 1984, 1990; Merriam, 2001). Accordingly,
to address the diverse expectations of adult learners, classroom cultures that are accepting,
respectful, and supportive of adult students’ beliefs, expertise, and needs (Bransford, Brown,
& Cocking, 2000; McCombs, 1991) are most likely to produce effective learning outcomes
that transfer to practice.
Attending to Environmental Challenges
Because learning in classroom settings is “as much a socially shared undertaking as it is
an individually constructed enterprise” (Lambert & McCombs, 1998, p. 39), learning
environments and their outcomes are affected by the social interactions, interpersonal
relationships, and communication styles of those present. Each of these processes and their
potential outcomes also can be influenced by the “adverse baggage” (Mahoney, 1991, p. 51)
that students often bring to classroom settings. Such negativity can arise from internal factors
(e.g., health issues, interpersonal conflicts, attitudes, feelings of low self-worth) or external
factors (e.g., family, work, or community obligations). Further, traveling during high-density
commuter hours to attend evening classes also can create frustrations for adult students
(Ortman, 1995) that carry into classroom settings. To overcome these negative impacts on
learning activities and outcomes and to build effective learning environments, adult educators
must be cognizant of such sources of interference and be prepared to diminish their impact,
even while enhancing positive environmental factors that support effective learning.
Supporting Self-Authorship
Adult education programs, structured to foster knowledge and skill acquisition and the
development of inner potential (Warren, 1968), provide formal and informal activities for
self-directed learning that simultaneously can build capacity for lifelong learning. Providing
opportunities for adults to explore their inner dimensions (e.g., values, interpersonal loyalties,
biases) can help them face and understand their identity and perspectives, a process known as
self-authorship (Kegan, 1994). Using differentiated instruction helps develop group synergy
and can provide novelty in the classroom. For example, problem-centered activities (e.g., self-
evaluations, case studies, role playing, simulations) support task-oriented learning that
capitalizes on prior experience and tacit knowledge (Cross, 1981; Hansman, 2001; Knowles,
1990). In addition, such activities generally are preferred by adult learners over content-
oriented learning through lectures and memorization. Involving adult students in the
development of their curriculum and in conducting self- and group-learning assessments
throughout their learning activities also enhance learner engagement (Glickman, 1998).