Although the tendency to deify the guru only gradually
gained a doctrinal position, the idea can already be seen in
the S ́veta ̄ ́svatara Upanis:ad 6.23, which speaks of a man who
has the highest love and devotion for God and for his guru
as for God. In later times this distinction is erased so that the
guru is identified with the gods. The great poet and mystic
Kab ̄ır (d. c. 1518) taught that the guru should be recognized
as the Lord himself; a view echoed by Caitanya (d. 1533) and
his followers. This process of deification (no doubt aided by
the conception of avata ̄ras) went to such extremes that the
guru might be said to have usurped and displaced the gods
in importance. Thus, the S ́aiva texts teach that if S ́iva be-
comes angry, “then the guru can pacify him, but if the guru
becomes angry, no one can pacify him.”
It is in relation to this theme that the idea of the “guru’s
grace” arose, a concept of particular force even today. Many
Indian seekers feel that the mere presence of the guru (as in
satsang, or keeping spiritual company) can somehow lead the
pupil to liberation. This view, however, is not held universal-
ly. One can easily find numerous exceptions that suggest that
the intensity of the disciple’s wish for knowledge and his ear-
nest striving are all that is necessary; the guru’s only true
function then is to act as a messenger. Seen in this light, one
can easily understand the statements that contend there is no
lack of gurus, only of qualified and true disciples.
That the prestige and influence enjoyed by gurus has
persisted to modern times is attested to by certain teachers
of our century who possess the force and unmistakable ring
of authenticity. One need only mention by way of example
the writings by and about Nisargadatta Maharaj, Ramana
Maharshi, and Shri Anirvan. Although in modern times
there has been a great deal of speculation and criticism about
the claims made by many spiritual guides of India, especially
those offering their services to the West, it would be difficult
and perhaps a mistake to attempt to judge those teachers on
the basis of their outward actions. For no one, as Maharaj
has said, could know the motives behind the actions of a
truly realized guru. To illustrate this point, Maharaj tells the
story of a sam:nya ̄sin (world-renouncing ascetic) who was told
by his guru to marry. He obeyed and suffered bitterly. But
all four of his children became the greatest saints and r:s:is of
Maharashtra.
BUDDHISM. Accounts of the Buddha’s early life indicate that
he retired to the forest in order to receive the teaching and
guidance of various celebrated hermits and teachers. Howev-
er, after practicing a series of austere yogic exercises for sever-
al years, the Buddha determined that their guidance was in-
sufficient and set out on his own to attain enlightenment.
Once the Buddha attained his enlightenment he remained
in a blissful state of meditation for several days and contem-
plated the trouble he would cause himself should he attempt
to share his vision and offer guidance to a deeply deluded and
ignorant mankind. He overcame this final temptation of re-
maining secluded and private in his vision, resolving to share
his knowledge with other seekers and to guide them towards
a similar transformation. It is upon this fundamental attitude
that the Buddhist tradition of spiritual guidance takes its pre-
cedence.
Unlike some Indian traditions that tend to view the
guru as an incarnation of divinity or as an intermediary to
the sacred, early Buddhism emphasized the humanity of the
guide and his own attainment of spiritual knowledge. The
term designated by the texts for the guide or teacher is “good
or virtuous friend” (Pali, kalya ̄n:amitta; Skt., kalya ̄n:amitra).
The kalya ̄n:amitra provides guidance based entirely on the in-
sight he has gained from personal experience. In one instance
the Sam:yutta Nika ̄ya reports that when A ̄nanda suggested to
the Buddha that reliance on “virtuous friends” was half the
holy life, the Buddha corrected him by declaring it the whole
of the holy life. The same text (1:88) relates an episode in
which the Buddha describes himself as the “virtuous friend”
par excellence, as a spiritual guide who leads sentient beings
to freedom from birth, old age, suffering, and death.
Bodhisattva. At the core of the development of
Maha ̄ya ̄na Buddhism was the role to be performed by the
bodhisattva (“enlightenment being”). Maha ̄ya ̄na doctrine ar-
gues that the old order was decidedly individualistic and that
the emphasis on desiring a personal liberation, or nirva ̄n:a,
was actually a hindrance to the full development of one’s
spiritual potentialities, stopping the larger movement toward
“complete enlightment.” The bodhisattva relinquishes his
personal enlightenment and vows to work for the enlighten-
ment of all sentient beings. After attaining the requisite in-
sight (prajña ̄), the final stage of the bodhisattva’s career is de-
voted to the welfare of others as practiced via skillful means
(upaya). The doctrine maintains that prajña without upaya
leads to the incomplete quietistic enlightenment, while pos-
session of upaya without prajña results in continued bondage
to samsara. Therefore, the skillful guidance of others toward
enlightenment, as an expression of compassion, becomes
paramount to the spiritual progress of the bodhisattva;
through this process of guidance something “more” is gained
by him.
The employment of skillful means or technique is essen-
tially intended for use by those spiritual guides or masters
who possess a complete and perfect knowledge of the teach-
ings and the methods of practice and who are themselves free
from the delusions of the mind and emotions. The bodhisatt-
va perceives through spiritual insight (prajña) the inner barri-
ers and the potentialities of the pupil and can respond to each
accordingly. Candrak ̄ırti (fl. 600–650 CE) argued that con-
tradictory teachings would naturally arise because the Bud-
dhas were physicians rather than teachers; in considering the
mental and spiritual stations of their disciples, the Buddhas
would vary their teachings accordingly. The idea that the
master could teach people by playing various roles while re-
maining inwardly free was presented in its ultimate form by
the Vimalak ̄ırti Su ̄tra, which declared that even the Ma ̄ras
are all bodhisattvas dwelling in an “inconceivable liberation”
and “playing the devil in order to develop beings through
their skillful means.”8712 SPIRITUAL GUIDE