It is uncertain whether the ancient Greek baituloi
(“animated stones,” i.e., meteorites) can be compared to the
Aramaic-Hebrew beit-El (Fauth, 1964). But the Greek au-
thor Theophrastus (fourth century BCE) characterizes the su-
perstitious person as one who dares not pass the already oily
stones at the crossroads without prostrating himself and
pouring oil on them (Characters 16). These quadrilateral pil-
lars, sometimes ending in a head and surrounded by a heap
of stones (Gr., hermaios lophos) were called “herms.” This
name is identical to that of the god Hermes, which etymo-
logically means “stone.” He is the stone as god or the god
in stone. The various specialties of Hermes may derive from
his role as god of the crossroads. As such, he is the guide of
those traveling on the road and therefore a protector of com-
merce and illegal business. He is a messenger too, and as a
guide he develops into a psychopomp who accompanies the
souls of the dead to the underworld. In his connection with
border stones, Hermes becomes a god of the land and thresh-
olds and finally a patron of the entire community. The ithy-
phallic form of the erected stone (also observed in the Hindu
lin ̇gas) represents both the fertility and apotropaic powers of
the god, which in turn make him a patron of the shepherds
(Herter, 1976).
There were other gods of the ancient Greek pantheon
who could also be represented by either uncut or sculptured
stones. To the latter belong the common sacred column, ta-
pered to a point and called Apollo Aiguieus (“of the road”),
commonly found set up in the street in front of a house door.
They were anointed with oil, decorated with ribbons, and
identified as altars. In the old gymnasium of Megara, the cap-
ital of the province Megaris to the west of Attica, was a small
pyramidal stone that bore the name of Apollo. But the best-
known sacred stone of ancient Greece was the conical stone
of Apollo, the omphalos (“navel”), at Delphi. The poet Pindar
(522–438 BCE) explains its sanctity with the belief that the
sanctuary of Delphi is situated at the exact center of the
earth. This interpretation might be secondary, however;
the discussion of this Greek material reminds us of the diffi-
culties of distinguishing earlier from later phases in historical
development (cf. Hartland et al., 1920, p. 870, and Eliade,
1958, secs. 81f.).
MADAGASCAR. On Madagascar there exists a richly devel-
oped stone cult. The traditions explaining why these monu-
ments were raised and the rites and practices associated with
them have continued to exist right down to the present time.
They present a great richness of variations, a fact that consti-
tutes a warning against simplified reconstructions when, in
other places, only archaeological memorials survive.
According to the report of a Norwegian missionary, the
most common practice involving these stones takes place in
the context of an ancestor cult. A man who is prominent and
rich calls together his extended family before he dies and de-
crees as follows: “My body shall certainly die and be buried,
but my spirit shall always remain with you, my children.
When you are eating, set out a little food in that place where
I usually eat. And what I wish for you to offer up as a sacrifice
to me is the following: [At this point, he names whatever he
is fondest of, such as rice, meat, liquor, eel, different kinds
of fish, or honey.] And should anyone fall sick or lack for
anything or suffer bad luck, then call upon us, and we shall
help you. We shall protect you, sending riches, good harvests
and many children.” The old man lists the taboos to be ob-
served and states where the stone or altar shall be raised and
its size, which corresponds to his own importance. He him-
self will live in the memorial monument and accept the sacri-
fices. The choice of this stone, its difficult transport, and its
establishment on a raised spot near the village are accompa-
nied by many rites before the ceremonial dedication is ac-
complished (Ruud, 1947, pp. 117ff.). A French researcher,
Charles Renel, has carefully recorded the occurrence, within
the separate geographical tribal territories, of stones associat-
ed with bequests, graves, memorials, and sacrifice and the
different, indigenous names that correspond to their chang-
ing appearance and varying functions. As gravestones, they
are usually raised to the east on the location of the corpse’s
head, which is also called the grave’s head. The stones are
smeared with fat, flour, and the blood of sacrificed animals,
and at the foot of the stone sacrificial gifts are deposited.
The older stones are generally uncut; the sculptured
stones belong to more recent times. Both are called, among
other things, “stone-upright” or “stone-man.” Wooden scaf-
folding, occasionally freestanding, may sometimes have been
built over them, and on these the skulls of animal sacrifices
are placed. The height of the stone can vary with the social
level of the deceased and sometimes directly corresponds to
his physical stature; thus, the stone also acquires the character
of a more or less nonfigurative statue or memorial. In this
case, it may also be set up independently of the burial site.
When the deceased has died in a foreign country or for other
reasons has not been able to be buried, the importance of the
local stone as a memorial becomes even more marked. Nev-
ertheless, it can still be used religiously; one goes to it to make
a vow, to leave a sacrificial gift, or to carry out a bloody
sacrifice.
In some parts of Madagascar, wooden poles are used in
place of stones and are called “intermediaries” or “transfer-
ence vessels” of the spirits of the dead. A heap of stones of
varying size can also be substituted for the single stone, often
at the request of the deceased himself. Sometimes, passersby
throw a new stone on the heap with a prayer to the unknown
spirit for a fortunate journey or for protection against un-
known powers reigning over the road. But most often it is
relatives or fellow tribesmen who carry out this ritual piling
of stones in connection with a sacrificial vow. The worship
at stone heaps that are associated with particular persons is
believed to promote success in love or fertility. Thus, vo-
tive gifts can consist of wooden carvings representing the
male or female sexual organs, depending on the sex of the
supplicant.
Other holy stones have functioned as coronation stones,
for example, Stone-Holy and Stone of the Red Head in An-STONES 8745