4.The Gran Chaco. The bush and grass steppes of this area
stretch from the Paraguay River west to the foothills of
the Andes. The area was initially divided among hunt-
ers, fishers, and gatherers, and these cultures came under
diverse influences from neighboring agriculturists. A se-
ries of more or less acculturated groups of the Guiacurú
linguistic family (the Mataco and the Mascoy) may still
be encountered at the present time.
5.The Pampas and Patagonia. Hunting groups wandered
through these flatlands of the southern regions of South
America. The extinct Pampa and Tehuelche Indians
were among the peoples of this region. The Tierra del
Fuego archipelago, near the Strait of Magellan, is also
included within this territory. Although the inhabitants
of these regions—the Selk’nam (Ona), Yahgan, and Ala-
caluf—are considered extinct, their culture and religion
were well documented before they vanished.
6.Southern Andes. This area, especially its middle and
southernmost regions, is populated by the agrarian
Araucanians of Chile, who have prospered up to the
present time. Their success has been attributed to their
development of a self-sufficient culture a few decades
before the Spanish invasion in the early sixteenth centu-
ry. This development was the result of the influence of
highly advanced Peruvian cultures, as the Inca empire
progressed to the Maule River in Chile. In the eigh-
teenth and nineteenth centuries, the Araucanians ex-
panded eastward, but this part of the group, like its pre-
decessors in the area, eventually became extinct.Pronounced differences in religious phenomena appear with-
in each of these cultural areas; these phenomena present cer-
tain discrepancies when seen together. The most outstanding
contrast appears between the highly developed Andean reli-
gions, which are founded on priesthood and ruling cults, and
the religious beliefs of the tribes in the eastern lowlands.
Some typical examples of their forms and their respective be-
liefs should help to clarify their differences.
DEITIES, CULTURE HEROES, AND ANCESTORS. The tradi-
tion of a creator as the prime mover and teacher of mankind
is universal among the Indians of South America (Métraux,
1949). In the majority of cases, the mythical person most
often represented is not directly involved in the daily activi-
ties of mortals and therefore does not enjoy particular venera-
tion. There is no fundamental discrepancy between this dis-
interested deity and the omnipotent creator whose cultic
worship is integrated into a religious system; similar charac-
teristics are attributed to both figures. A god previously ven-
erated may fade to the position of a mythical figure, just as
a mythical character can achieve cultic significance.
Under certain conditions, a creator, a culture hero, or
an ancestor may rise to the position of a deity or supreme
being. Such a case occurred in the old cultures of Peru with
the religious figure Viracocha. Perhaps originally a culture
hero of the Quechua or some other Andean people, Vira-
cocha eventually ascended to the ranks of the highest pan-
theon as a result of speculation on the part of the Inca priest-
hood. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, Viracocha
was represented in anthropomorphic sculptures that ap-
peared in special Inca temples and was venerated through
prayers and sacrificial offerings. Inti, the Inca sun god, is por-
trayed with a human face within a golden disk, and as the
tribal god of the ruling Inca dynasty he was embodied in the
Inca emperor.
The establishment of an elaborate cult for an indigenous
supreme being is a typical occurrence in highly advanced cul-
tures, but such cults are seldom found in South America out-
side the Andes region. When they do appear elsewhere they
are likely the result of the influence of these advanced civili-
zations on compatible cultural and geographical situations.
A report by Karin Hissink and Albert Hahn (1961) on the
cultures from the lowlands of Bolivia, near the Andes, points
out that the Tacana Indians of the Beni River area maintain
the belief in a supreme being known as Caquiahuaca, who
created the earth, human beings, animals, and plants. An old
man with a white beard, Caquiahuaca lives in a cave in a
mountain that bears his name and that forms the center of
the world. In temples he is represented by a small bees-
wax figure surrounded by a series of larger wooden statues
that represent the lower gods, known as edutzi, who assist
him. As the instructor of the priest-shamans, or yanacona,
Caquiahuaca assists them in the performance of their office,
and as their master he is responsible for their religious
vocation.
In addition to this, Deavoavai, the lord of the animals,
also represents a creator, culture hero, and master of the
dead. In his capacity as ruler of the game, Deavoavai is rooted
in an earlier cultural-historical level—that of hunters, fishers,
and gatherers. Such a deity is also found among other agri-
cultural peoples, including peoples of the Amazon lowlands.
Despite their reliance on an economic subsistence that has
long since undergone the transition from a hunting to an ag-
ricultural base, these groups of the Amazon Basin maintain
a religious emphasis that incorporates a dependence on a
powerful being who controls the game, an aspect that will
receive attention below. It is sufficient here to point out that
within this region a relationship exists between the master
of the hunted game and the supreme being, a concept first
recognized by Adolf E. Jensen (1951).
Culture hero as supreme being. Konrad T. Preuss was
convinced that Moma (“father”) was the paramount, indeed,
the only true god of the Witóto of the Putumayo area of the
northwestern Amazon and that he was identified with the
moon. According to creation legends among these people,
Moma came into existence from the “word,” that is, he was
a product of magico-religious incantations and myths that
are endowed with supernatural powers. He was also the per-
sonification of the “word,” which he bestowed upon human
beings, and the “word” was the doctrine that represented the
driving force behind all religious ceremonies that Moma in-8576 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN RELIGIONS: AN OVERVIEW