works on various aspects of indigenous religions. Other West
and East African scholars maintained that African scholars
were strategically located to provide objective descriptions of
the religions of their own people.
African scholars questioned the definition of religion as
the opposition between the sacred and the profane. In his Af-
rican Religions and Philosophy (1969), Mbiti remarks that
such a distinction did not apply to traditional African con-
texts, where religion permeated all spheres of life. This initi-
ated debate over whether the Western definition of religion
satisfied the criterion of cross-cultural applicability.
Religious studies in the West have tended to emphasize
scripture in the world’s religions. Frederick Maximilian Mul-
ler (1823–1900) initiated the interest in scripture with The
Sacred Books of the East (1879–1910). African scholars drew
attention to the absence of sacred writings in indigenous reli-
gions, noting that these religions remained vibrant nonethe-
less. Thus, the presence of scripture did not accord a religion
any special status, African scholars maintained. This led to
some relativization of the significance of scripture in the dis-
cipline.
African scholars also highlighted the importance of oral
traditions to the study of religion. While textual analysis had
featured prominently in religious studies in the West, no
such texts existed in most parts of Africa. The historical study
of indigenous religions had to grapple with the issue of oral
sources. Fieldwork became a critical aspect of religious
studies in Africa. Other researchers into African Independent
Churches, such as Marthinus Daneel and Gerardus Oosthui-
zen, also used this approach. Some African scholars who par-
ticipated in indigenous religious practices, such as the tradi-
tional healer and anthropologist Gordon Chavunduka of
Zimbabwe and Wande Abimbola, an Ifa priest and Nigerian
scholar, also drew attention to the body of knowledge that
was found in indigenous religions. They called for alternative
approaches that were not dependent on Western models of
scientific rationality.
In their descriptions of the various religions of Africa,
scholars in Africa have also sought to discern the meaning
of religion. In his Religion and Ultimate Well-Being: An Ex-
planatory Theory (1984), the South African scholar Martin
Prozesky concludes that the search for ultimate well-being
was the driving force behind religion. Laurenti Magesa
(1997) also argues that indigenous religions were inspired by
the search for abundant life. Detailed descriptions of the reli-
gions of Africa and methodological reflections were part of
the African contribution.
Major Challenges. The religious commitment of most
African scholars resulted in theological works that sought to
promote Christianity or Islam. African phenomenological
scholars like Jacob Olupona and Friday Mbon of Nigeria and
J. S. Kruger of South Africa protested against the encroach-
ment of theology in the 1980s. Earlier, Okot p’Bitek had
criticized the application of Christian concepts in African Re-
ligions in Western Scholarship (1971). The hegemony of
Christian and, to a lesser extent, Islamic theology remained
intact. Subservience to Western methodologies and research
interests by some African scholars also stifled creativity.
The shortage of books and journals threatened the via-
bility of religious studies in the region. Many departments
operated with ill-equipped libraries. Significant journals like
the Journal of Religion in Africa were inaccessible to most stu-
dents and lecturers. Most established scholars relocated to
Western countries such as Canada, the United Kingdom,
and the United States in search of better career opportuni-
ties. Poor remuneration and oppressive regimes contributed
to such developments. The worst affected countries included
Nigeria, Kenya, Zimbabwe, and others—countries that had
developed impressive traditions in the academic study of reli-
gion. However, institutions in some countries, such as South
Africa, Botswana, and Namibia, managed to retain their
staff. In most parts of the continent, departments of religious
studies have struggled to justify their relevance amid inces-
sant calls by governments to reduce costs. Between 2003 and
2004, South African departments of religious studies were
forced to merge.
Gender imbalances have also been noticeable in the dis-
cipline in the region. Few female scholars have participated,
with Christian theologians dominating. Mercy Amba
Oduyoye of Ghana, Isabel Phiri of Malawi and South Africa,
and Musa Dube of Botswana analyzed the religious experi-
ences of African women in the late 1990s. The shortage of
scholarships in religious studies, as opposed to theology, re-
sulted in the low numbers of African female scholars of
religion.
INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF THE ACADEMIC STUDY OF RELI-
GION IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA. The study of religion took
place at various levels of educational achievement during dif-
ferent historical periods. Arabic schools, bible colleges, and
primary and secondary schools offered subjects that provided
some knowledge about the religious context. Teacher train-
ing institutions introduced students to the various religions
of the world by emphasizing the divergent approach, which
does not seek to convert students to a specific religion. In
some countries, such as Zimbabwe, the diploma in religious
studies has offered graduates a number of career opportuni-
ties in the civil service and the private sector. The effects of
HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990s and beyond
has led some nongovernmental organizations to recruit grad-
uates trained in the study of religion.
Aspects of the academic study of religion were also
found in some church-sponsored universities and theological
colleges in the 1980s. Although Christianity received prefer-
ential treatment, comparative religion was an integral part of
the curriculum. In southern Africa some theological colleges
sought to establish associate status with national universities
in an effort to maintain high academic standards. Courses
on the history of religions exposed students to religious plu-
ralism. Although the popularity of the discipline varied8794 STUDY OF RELIGION: THE ACADEMIC STUDY OF RELIGION IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA