Prozesky, Martin. Religion and Ultimate Well-Being: An Explana-
tory Theory. London, 1984. An effort to locate the central
theme that runs across religious traditions of the world.
Prozesky, Martin, and John W. de Gruchy, eds. Living Faiths in
South Africa. New York, 1995. A description of the religions
of South Africa in their plurality.
Pye, Michael, ed. Marburg Revisited: Institutions and Strategies in
the Study of Religion. Marburg, Germany, 1989. See contri-
butions by Peter McKenzie, “The History of Religions in Af-
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infect religious studies.
EZRA CHITANDO (2005)
STUPA WORSHIP. The Sanskrit term stu ̄pa first oc-
curs in the Vedas, where it conveys the meaning “knot of
hair, top,” or “summit.” It is unclear how the term came to
be used by Buddhists to refer to the mounds erected over the
relics of S ́a ̄kyamuni Buddha, but this usage can be traced
back to early Buddhism, as can the practice of worship at stu-
pas. The Jains too built stupas, but these postdate the earliest
Buddhist structures. The terms thu ̄pa (thu ̄ba) and
dha ̄tugabbha (Skt., dha ̄tugarbha) are attested in Pali sources.
This latter term derives from references to the Buddha’s relics
as a dha ̄tu (“element”) and to the dome or “egg” (an:d:a) of
the stupa as a garbha (“womb” or “treasury”).
According to the Maha ̄parinibba ̄na Suttanta, after
S ́a ̄kyamuni Buddha achieved final nirva ̄n:a his body was cre-
mated and stupas were erected to receive his remains.
S ́a ̄kyamuni’s cremation and the installation of his relics in
stupas are probably historical facts. The early Buddhists
erected stupas because they believed that S ́a ̄kyamuni had
freed himself from the cycles of birth and death. Had
S ́a ̄kyamuni died and remained within those cycles it would
have been pointless to build a stupa for him, for not only
would the place of his rebirth be unknown, but one could
not have expected him to act on the requests of his believers.
According to the Maha ̄parinibba ̄na Suttanta, stupas could be
built to receive the remains of the following four types of
people (known as thu ̄paraha ̄, “worthy of stupas”), all of
whom had transcended the cycles of birth and death
(sam:sa ̄ra): tatha ̄gatas (buddhas), paccekabuddhas (self-
enlightened buddhas), tatha ̄gatassa sa ̄vaka ̄s (“hearers of the
Buddha”), and ra ̄ja ̄ cakkavattis (“universal rulers”).
Such sages could be enshrined in stupas because they
had entered nirva ̄n:a. In the A ̄gamas, such people were said
to have realized dit:t:adhamma-nibba ̄na (“nirva ̄n:a in this
world”) or sau ̄padisesa-nibba ̄na (“nirva ̄n:a with remainder”).
Nirva ̄n:a was also called the “dharma realm” (dhammadha ̄tu).
Such terms suggest that nirva ̄n:a was not always viewed as ex-
tinction but often as an actual state or realm a person enters
upon realizing enlightenment.
When the Buddha died, he was said to have entered
parinibba ̄na (“complete nirva ̄n:a”) or anupa ̄disesanibba ̄na-
dha ̄tu (“nirva ̄n:a without remainder”). Thus, even after the
Buddha died he was not viewed as having completely ceased
to exist; rather, he was thought to exist in the realm of
nirva ̄n:a. Consequently, believers could worship and offer
their prayers to him through the medium of the stupa. It was
at this time that the belief that the Buddha could respond
to the petitions of his worshipers probably developed. If
“nirva ̄n:a without remainder” had been considered a com-
pletely quiescent state, then such responses by the Buddha
would have been impossible. Thus, the people who wor-
shiped at Buddhist stupas seem to have believed that the
Buddha continued to be active. This belief later led to
Maha ̄ya ̄na doctrines about the dharmaka ̄ya’s activity in the
world.
During the early period of Buddhism offerings to the
Buddha’s relics ( ́sar ̄ıra-pu ̄ja ̄) were made by laypeople. Ac-
cording to the Maha ̄parinibba ̄na Suttanta, the Buddha was
asked by A ̄nanda what type of ceremony should be held for
the Buddha’s remains. The Buddha replied, “You should
strive for the true goal [sadattha] of emancipation [vimoks:a].”
The Buddha thus prohibited monks from having any con-
nection with his funeral ceremonies and instead called upon
wise and pious lay believers to conduct the ceremonies. Ac-
cording to this same text, it was the Mallas of Kusina ̄ra ̄ who
conducted the cremation. The Buddha’s remains were then
divided among eight tribes in central India and stupas were
built.
Closely related to the stupa in functional terms is the
caitya (Pali, cetiya). Caityas are similar to stupas, although
originally the two were distinct entities. In Buddhism, the
term caitya referred originally to a place that was sacred. In
the Maha ̄parinibba ̄na Suttanta caityas are described as places
that men and women of good families “should see so that
feelings of reverence and awe will arise.” Four of these are
mentioned in the text: the Buddha’s birthplace at Lumbin ̄ı,
his place of enlightenment at Bodh Gaya ̄, the site of his first
sermon at the Deer Park (in Banaras), and the place where
he entered “nirva ̄n:a without remainder” (Ku ́sinagara). Be-
cause the pilgrims who visited these sites were called
caitya-ca ̄rika, the sites must have been known as caityas. Sa-8796 STUPA WORSHIP