nonbrahmans, have migrated abroad in search of economic
opportunities, they have taken with them to Malaysia, Sri
Lanka, East Africa, Madagascar, and North America self-
perceptions and religious lifestyles.
The character of much of this Tamil religion in the
modern era is aptly described as neo-bhakti. Participation in
festivals and pilgrimages at temple sites has increased geo-
metrically. Renovation of some temples deemed significant
began in the latter part of the nineteenth century; they began
to welcome all spectra of society in the 1920s, and they have
become more accessible by transportation systems since the
1930s. Deities such as Murukan
̄
have attained enormous
popularity throughout the region for a variety of reasons,
among which are his appeal to all spectra of society; his pre-
sumed Tamil antiquity and identity; and his amalgamation
of much of the religious symbolism that has been part of
Tamil cultural history. In more recent decades, local god-
desses such as Mariamman
̄
have been increasingly brahman-
ized and made part of the great Hindu tradition even while
retaining ties to local sites and folk culture. Aiyyappan,
whose prototypical shrine is in Kerala, has nonetheless at-
tracted increasing numbers of Tamil worshipers who see in
him Tamil roots, genuine power, and an invitation to a sense
of community that transcends caste. Various forms of an-
cient ritual continue to be practiced in the homes of the or-
thodox even while accommodations are made to the exigen-
cies of commerce and contemporary life. At the same time,
public pressures to “streamline” and “democratize” religion
have led to the de-brahmanization of ritual in some temples
and the privatization of some religious practices. Yet in many
respects, religion is as much a part of the contemporary
Tamil consciousness as it has ever been.
SEE ALSO A ̄
̄
lva ̄rs; Besant, Annie; Bhakti; Buddhism, article
on Buddhism in India; Gan:e ́sa; Goddess Worship, article
on The Hindu Goddess; Hindu Tantric Literature; Indian
Religions, articles on History of Study and Rural Tradi-
tions; Indus Valley Religion; Jainism; Kingship; Kr:s:n:aism;
Madhva; Ma ̄n:ikkava ̄cakar; Meykan:t:a ̄r; Murukan
̄
; Radhakr-
ishnan, Sarvepalli; Ra ̄ma ̄nuja; Ra ̄ma ̄yan:a; S ́aivism, articles
on Na ̄yan
̄
a ̄rs and S ́aiva Siddha ̄nta; S ́an ̇ kara; Sinhala Reli-
gion; Southeast Asian Religions, article on Mainland Cul-
tures; Temple, article on Hindu Temples; Vaikha ̄nasas;
Vais:n:avism, article on Pa ̄ñcara ̄tras; Ya ̄muna.
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Whitehead, Henry. The Village Gods of South India. 2d ed., rev.
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Yocum, Glenn E. Hymns to the Dancing S ́iva. New Delhi and Co-
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Zvelebil, Kamil V. The Smile of Murukan: On Tamil Literature of
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to date of Tamil literature, including chapters on many who
had a religious impact: bhakti poets, the cittars, Kampan, and
Arunakiri.
FRED W. CLOTHEY (1987)
TAMIL RELIGIONS 8979